List of caliphs explained

Post:Caliph
Arabic: خَليفة
Style:Amir al-Mu'minin
Residence:Major caliphates

Parallel regional caliphates

Appointer:Hereditary (since 661)
Formation:8 June 632
First:Abu Bakr
Last:Hussein bin Ali
Precursor:Muhammad Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam
Abolished:3 March 1924 (as political office in Turkey)
19 December 1925 (conquest of the Sharifian Caliphate by the Sultanate of Nejd)
4 June 1931 (death of Hussein bin Ali)

A caliph is the supreme religious and political leader of an Islamic state known as the caliphate.[1] [2] Caliphs led the Muslim as political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam,[3] and widely-recognised caliphates have existed in various forms for most of Islamic history.[4]

The first caliphate, the Rashidun Caliphate, was ruled by the four Rashidun caliphs (Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون,), Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali RadiAllahu 'Anhum, who are considered by Sunni Muslims to have been the most virtuous and pure caliphs. They were chosen by popular acclamation or by a small committee, in contrast with the following caliphates, which were mostly hereditary.[5] On the other hand, Shiites only recognise Ali and consider the first three caliphs to be usurpers.

The Rashidun caliphate ended with the First Fitna, which transferred authority to the Umayyad dynasty that presided over the Umayyad Caliphate, the largest caliphate and the last one to actively rule the entire Muslim world.[6]

The Abbasid Revolution overthrew the Ummayads and instituted the Abbasid dynasty which ruled over the Abbasid Caliphate.[7] The Abbassid Caliphate was initially strong and united, but gradually fractured into several states whose rulers only paid lip service to the caliph in Baghdad. There were also rivals to the Abbasids who claimed the caliphates for themselves, such as the Isma'ili Shia Fatimids, the Sunni Ummayyads in Córdoba and the Almohads, who followed their own doctrine. When Baghdad fell to the Mongols, the Abbassid family relocated to Cairo, where they continued to claim caliphal authority but had no political power, and actual authority was in the hands of the Mamluk Sultanate.

After the Ottoman conquest of Egypt, the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil III was taken to Constantinople, where he surrendered the caliphate to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The caliphate then remained in the House of Osman until after the First World War. The Ottoman Sultanate was abolished in 1922 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The head of the House of Osman, Abdulmejid II, retained the title of caliph for two more years, after which the caliphate was abolished in 1924.

In March 1924, when the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished, Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz proclaimed himself Caliph. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son Ali. After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the Ibn Saud-Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan, on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to the Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the Sharifate of Mecca and the Sharifian Caliphate to an end.[8]

Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)

See main article: Rashidun and Rashidun Caliphate.

Calligraphic nameName (in Arabic)Born (CE)Reigned from (CE)Reigned until (CE)DiedRelationship with Muhammad Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa SalamHouse
Abu Bakr
()
5738 June 63222 August 634Father of Aisha, Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam wifeBanu Taim
Umar
()
58423 August 634 3 November 644
(assassinated by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz)		Father of Hafsa, Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam wifeBanu Adi
Uthman
()		57911 November 64420 June 656
(assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house; see First Fitna)		Husband of Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam daughters, Ruqayya and later Umm Kulthum, and grandson of Muhammad's paternal auntBanu Ummaya
Ali
()		60120 June 65629 January 661
(assassinated while praying in the Mosque of Kufa; see First Fitna)		Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam cousin, and husband of Fatimah, Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam daughter, and Umamah bint Zainab, Muhammad's Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wa Salam granddaughterBanu Hashim

Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)

See main article: Umayyad Caliphate.

Image/CoinNameBornReigned fromReigned untilDiedRelation with predecessor
Mu'awiya I60266129 April or 1 May 680Second cousin of Uthman
Yazid I64768011 November 683Son of Mu'awiya I
Mu'awiya II664November 683684Son of Yazid I
Marwan I623–6266847 May 685First cousin of Uthman
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan6466858 October 705Son of Marwan I
Al-Walid I668October 70523 February 715Son of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik674February 71522 September 717Son of Abd al-Malik

Brother of al-Walid I

Umar II2 November 682September 717February 720Nephew of Abd al-Malik

First cousin of Al-Walid I and Sulayman

Great-grandson of Umar through a maternal line

Yazid II68710 February 72026 January 724Son of Abd al-Malik

Brother of al-Walid I and Sulayman

Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik69126 January 7246 February 743Son of Abd al-Malik

Brother of al-Walid I, Sulayman and Yazid II

Al-Walid II7096 February 74317 April 744 (assassinated)Son of Yazid II
Yazid III70117 April 7443/4 October 744Son of Al-Walid I
Ibrahim ibn al-Walid744 (few weeks)25 January 750
(executed)		Son of Al-Walid I
Marwan II6917446 August 750
(killed)		Nephew of Abd al-Malik

Cousin of Al-Walid I, Sulayman, Umar II, Yazid II and Hisham.

Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)

See main article: Abbasid Caliphate.

CoinRegnal namePersonal nameBornReigned fromReigned untilDiedParents
Al-SaffāḥAbul-'Abbās 'Abdallah72125 January 75010 June 754
Al-MansurAbu Ja'far 'Abdallah71410 June 754775
Al-MahdiAbu 'Abdallah Muhammad744/7457754 August 785
Al-HadiAbu Muhammad Musa764August 78514 September 786
Al-RashidHarun763/76614 September 78624 March 809
Al-AminMuhammad787March 80924/25 September 813
Al-Ma'munAbu al-Abbas 'Abdallah13/14 September 786September 8139 August 833
Al-Mu'tasimAbū Ishaq MuhammadOctober 7969 August 8335 January 842
Al-WathiqAbu Ja'far Harun811–8135 January 84210 August 847
Al-MutawakkilJa'farFebruary/March 82210 August 84711 December 861
(assassinated)
Al-MuntasirAbu Ja'far MuhammadNovember 8378617 or 8 June 862
Al-Musta'inAhmad836862866 (executed)
Al-Mu'tazzAbū ʿAbd allāh Muhammad847866869
Al-MuhtadiAbū Isḥāq Muḥammad86921 June 870
  • Al-Wathiq, Abbasid Caliph
  • Qurb (greek concubine)
Al-Mu'tamidAbu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad84221 June 87015 October 892
Al-Mu'tadidAbu'l-'Abbas Ahmad854/861October 8925 April 902
  • Al-Muwaffaq, Abbasid prince and Commander-in-chief
  • Dirar
Al-MuktafiAbu Muhammad ʿAlî877/8785 April 90213 August 908
Al-MuqtadirAbu al-Fadl Ja'far89513 August 90892931 October 932
(killed)
Al-QahirAbu Mansur Muhammad899929950
Al-MuqtadirAbu al-Fadl Ja'far89592931 October 932
(killed)
Al-QahirAbu Mansur Muhammad89931 October 932934950
Al-RadiAbu al-'Abbas MuhammadDecember 90993423 December 940
Al-MuttaqiAbu Ishaq Ibrahim908940944July 968
  • Al-Muqtadir, Abbasid Caliph
  • Khalub also known as Zuhra
Al-MustakfiAbu’l-Qasim 'Abdallah905September 944January 946September/October 949
  • Al-Muktafi, Abbasid Caliph
  • Ghusn, Greek concubine
Al-MutiAbu al-Qasim al-Faḍl914January 9465 August 97412 October 974
Al-Ta'i'Abd al-Karīm9329749913 August 1003
  • Al-Muti, Abbasid Caliph
  • Utb (Greek concubine)
Al-QadirAbu'l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Ishaq ibn al-Muqtadir9471 November 99129 November 1031
Al-Qa'imAbu Ja'far Abdallah100129 November 10312 April 1075
  • Al-Qadir, Abbasid Caliph
  • Badr al-Dija also known as Qatr al-Nida
Al-MuqtadiAbū'l-Qāsim ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muhammad ibn al-Qa'im10562 April 1075February 1094
Al-MustazhirAbū l-ʿAbbās AhmadApril/May 1078February 10946 August 1118
  • Al-Muqtadi, Abbasid Caliph
  • Taif al-Afwah (Egyptian)
Al-MustarshidAbū'l-Manṣūr al-FaḍlApril/May 10926 August 111829 August 1135
Al-Rashid BillahAbu Jaʿfar Manṣūr110929 August 113511366 June 1138
(killed by Hashshashins)
Al-MuqtafiAbū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad9 March 1096113612 March 1160
Al-MustanjidAbū'l-Muẓaffar Yūsuf112412 March 116020 December 1170
Al-MustadiHassan114220 December 117030 March 1180
Al-NasirAbu'l-ʿAbbās Ahmad6 August 11582 March 11804 October 1225
Al-ZahirAbu Nasr Muhammad11765 October 122511 July 1226
Al-MustansirAbû Ja`far al-Manṣūr17 February 119211 July 12262 December 1242
Al-Musta'simAbu Ahmad Abdallah12132 December 124220 February 1258

During the later period of Abbasid rule, Muslim rulers began using other titles, such as Amir al-umara and Sultan.

Mamluk Abbasid dynasty (1261–1517)

See main article: Mamluk Sultanate. The Cairo Abbasids were largely ceremonial Caliphs under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate that existed after the takeover of the Ayyubid dynasty.[9] [10]

Regnal namePersonal nameReignParents
Al-MustansirAbu al-Qasim Ahmad13 June 1261 – 28 November 1261
Al-Hakim IAbu 'Abdullah Muhammad16 November 1262 – 19 January 1302
  • Abu 'Ali al-Hasan
Al-Mustakfi IAbu ar-Rabi' Sulaiman20 January 1302 – February 1340
Al-Wathiq IAbu Ishaq IbrahimFebruary 1340 – 17 June 1341
Al-Hakim IIAbu al-'Abbas Ahmad1341–1352
Al-Mu'tadid IAbu Bakr1352–1362
Al-Mutawakkil IAbu 'Abdillah Muhammad1362–1377
Al-Musta’simAbu Yahya Zakariya1377
Al-Mutawakkil IAbu 'Abdillah Muhammad1377–1383
Al-Wathiq II'UmarSeptember 1383 – 13 November 1386
Al-Musta'simAbu Yahya Zakariya1386–1389
Al-Mutawakkil IAbu 'Abdillah Muhammad1389 – 9 January 1406
Al-Musta'inAbu al-Fadl al-'Abbas22 January 1406 – 9 March 1414
Al-Mu'tadid IIAbu al-Fath Dawud1414–1441
Al-Mustakfi IIAbu ar-Rabi' Sulayman1441 – 29 January 1451
Al-Qa'imAbu Al-Baqa Hamzah1451–1455
Al-MustanjidAbu al-Mahasin Yusuf1455 – 7 April 1479
Al-Mutawakkil IIAbu al-'Izz 'Abdul 'Aziz5 April 1479 – 27 September 1497
Al-MustamsikAbu as-Sabr1497–1508
Al-Mutawakkil IIIMuhammad1508–1516
Al-MustamsikAbu as-Sabr1516–1517
Al-Mutawakkil IIIMuhammad1517

Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924)

See main article: Ottoman Caliphate. The head of the Ottoman dynasty was just entitled Sultan originally, but soon it started accumulating titles assumed from subjected peoples.[11] [12] Murad I (reigned 1362–1389) was the first Ottoman claimant to the title of Caliph; claimed the title after conquering Edirne.[13]

The Office of the Ottoman Caliphate was transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey which dissolved the office on March 3, 1924, in keeping with the policies of secularism that were adopted in the early years of the Republic of Turkey by its President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

After the abolition of the Caliphate, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey founded the Presidency of Religious Affairs as the new highest Islamic religious authority in the country.

Sharifian Caliphate (1924–1925)

See main article: Sharifian Caliphate. A last attempt at restoring the caliphal office and style with ecumenical recognition was made by Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz and Sharif of Mecca, who assumed both on 11 March 1924 and held them until 3 October 1924, when he passed the kingship to his son `Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Hashimi, who did not adopted the caliphal office and style.[15] Like the Fatimid caliphs, he was a descendant of Muhammad through a grandson of Hasan ibn Ali. Hussein's claim for caliphate was not accepted by the Wahhabi and Salafi movements, and in 1925 he was driven from Hejaz by the forces of Ibn Saud as an outcome of the Second Saudi-Hashemite War. He continued to use the title of caliph during his remaining life in exile, until his death in 1931.

Other caliphates

Hasan ibn Ali's Caliphate (661)

See main article: Hasan ibn Ali.

After Ali was killed, the governor of Syria Mu'awiya led his army toward Kufa, where Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali had been nominated as Ali's successor. Mu'awiya successfully bribed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas, the commander of Hasan's vanguard, to desert his post, and sent envoys to negotiate with Hasan. In return for a financial settlement, Hasan abdicated and Mu'awiya entered Kufa in July or September 661 and was recognized as caliph. This year is considered by a number of the early Muslim sources as 'the year of unity' and is generally regarded as the start of Mu'awiya's caliphate. Hasan abdicated as caliph after ruling for six or seven months.

Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr's Caliphate (684–692)

See main article: Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, the nephew of Aisha, the third wife of Muhammad, led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in 684 AD. He was proclaimed caliph in Mecca but was defeated and killed there in 692 AD after a six-month siege by general Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.[16]

Talib al-Haqq (747–748)

See main article: Talib al-Haqq.

Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)

See main article: Fatimid Caliphate and List of Fatimid caliphs.

Image/CoinRegnal namePersonal nameBornReigned fromReigned untilDiedParents
al-Mahdi BillahAbū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ḥusayn87427 August 9094 March 934
al-Qāʾim bi-Amr AllāhAbū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh8934 March 93417 May 946
al-Mansur BillahAbu Tahir Isma'il 91417 May 946 18 March 953
al-Mu'izz li-Din AllahAbu Tamim Ma'ad al-Muizz li-Din Allah93119 March 95321 December 975
al-Aziz BillahAbu al-Mansur Nizar95518 December 97513 October 996
al-Hakim bi-Amr AllahAbū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr98514 October 99613 February 1021
al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din AllahAbū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥākim100528 March 102113 June 1036
al-Mustansir BillahAbū Tamīm Maʿad al-Mustanṣir biʾllāh102913 June 1036 29 December 1094
al-Musta'li BillahAbū al-Qāsim Aḥmad ibn al-Mustanṣir107429/30 December 109411/12 December 1101
al-Amir bi-Ahkam AllahAbū ʿAlī al-Manṣūr ibn al-Mustaʿlī109611 December 11017 October 1130
al-Hafiz li-Din AllahAbūʾl-Maymūn ʿAbd al-Majīd ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Mustanṣir1074/5 or 1075/623 January 113210 October 1149
  • Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad ibn al-Mustansir Billah
al-Ẓāfir bi-Aʿdāʾ AllāhAbū al-Manṣūr Ismāʿīl ibn al-Ḥāfiẓ 113310 October 1149 1 or 15 April 1154
al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr AllahAbūʾl-Qāsim ʿĪsā ibn al-Ẓāfir 114916 April 115422 July 1160
al-ʿĀḍid li-Dīn AllāhAbū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn Yūsuf115123 July 1160 13 September 1171
  • Yusuf ibn al-Hafiz li-Din Allah

Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031)

See main article: Caliphate of Córdoba. (Not universally accepted; actual authority confined to Spain and parts of Maghreb)[17] [18]

!Name!Reign!Parents
Abd-ar-Rahman III 929–961
Al-Hakam II 961–976
Hisham II al-Hakam 976–1009
Muhammad II1009
Sulayman ibn al-Hakam 1009–1010
Hisham II al-Hakam 1010–1013
Sulayman ibn al-Hakam 1013–1016
Abd ar-Rahman IV1021–1022
Abd ar-Rahman V 1022–1023
Muhammad III1023–1024
  • Abd ar-Rahman bin Ubayd Allah bin Abd ar-Rahman III, grandson of Abd ar-Rahman III
  • Hawra
Hisham III 1027–1031
  • Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Malik bin Abd ar-Rahman III, grandson of Abd ar-Rahman III
  • 'Ateb

Almohad Caliphate (1145–1269)

See main article: Almohad Empire. (Not widely accepted, actual dominions were parts of North Africa and Iberia)[19] [20]

Bornu and Songhai Empires (15th/16th century)

See main article: Songhai Empire. Several rulers of West Africa adopted the title of Caliph. Mai Ali Ghaji ibn Dunama was the first ruler of Bornu Empire to assume the title. Askia Mohammad I of Songhai Empire also assumed the title around the same time.[21]

Indian caliphates (late medieval/early modern)

Since the 12th century, despite the South Asian domination of numerous Muslim empires, kingdoms and sultanates, Islamic caliphates were not fully attempted to be established across the Indian subcontinent. However, under the sharia based reigns of Sunni emperors such as Alauddin Khalji, Mughal Empire's Aurangzeb, and Mysore's rulers Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, absolute forms of caliphates were clearly to have appeared. These largely impacted the French-Italian emperor Napoleone Bonaparte and soldiers of the British Empire.[22] [23] [24]

Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903)

See main article: Sokoto Caliphate. (Not widely accepted, actual dominions were parts of West Africa)

Established by Tariqa Islamic scholar and religious leader Usman dan Fodio through the Fulani War (alternatively known as the Fulani Jihad), which sought to reduce the influence of pre-Islamic religious practices and spread a more vigorous form of Islam through the auspices of a Caliphate.

Ahmadiyya Caliphate (1908–present)

The Khalīfatul Masīh (Arabic: خليفة المسيح; Urdu: خلیفہ المسیح; English: Successor of the Messiah), sometimes simply referred to as Khalifah (i.e. Caliph, successor), is the elected spiritual and organizational leader of the worldwide Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and is the successor of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who had taken the titles of Mahdi and Messiah of Islam. The Caliph is believed to be divinely guided and is also referred to by members of current Khalifatul Masih is Mirza Masroor Ahmad.

After the death of Ghulam Ahmad, his successors directed the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community from Qadian in Punjab, British India, which remained the headquarters of the community until 1947 with the independence of Pakistan. From this time on, the headquarters moved to and remained in Rabwah, a town built on land bought in Pakistan by the community in 1948. In 1984, Ordinance XX was promulgated by the government of Pakistan which rendered the Khalifatul Masih unable to perform his duties and put the very institution in jeopardy. Due to these circumstances, Khalifatul Masih IV left Pakistan and migrated to London, England, provisionally moving the headquarters to the Fazl Mosque.[25]

Islamic State (2014–present)

On 29 June 2014, the Islamic State proclaimed the return of the Islamic caliphate, with its first caliph as Amir al-Mu'minin Abu Bakr Ibrahim bin Awwad Al-Badri Al-Husaini Al-Hashimi Al-Quraishi As-sammera'i al-Baghdadi.[26] [27] The caliphate's claimed territory at its peak controlled 12 million people. At its height, Islamic State ruled territories in various countries including Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Nigeria, Libya, the Philippines, Afghanistan, Congo, Yemen, and the Sinai region in Egypt, in addition to running guerrilla cells in many other countries.[28] [29]

In 2014–15, dozens of Salafi Jihadi groups[30] and scholars[31] around the world pledged allegiance to ISIL-claimed Caliphate.

On 10 April 2018, during a rally of U.S. President Donald Trump in Elkhart, Indiana in support of Mike Braun’s bid for the US Senate, Vice President Mike Pence referred to ISIS as a Caliphate, claiming "ISIS is on the run, their Caliphate has crumbled, and we will soon drive them out of existence once and for all."[32]

The Islamic State of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, the militant jihadist organization prescribed by many states as a terrorist organization, and the founding organization of the Islamic State caliphate. Were severely degraded in operational capability, subscribers and territorial control during the military intervention in Iraq and Syria by the U.S.-led Global Coalition to Defeat Daesh, and in Syria by the Russian military intervention.[33]

As of early, 2022 Islamic State occupies some territory in Nigeria and has 3 million people under its rule;[34] and also it continues to maintain control over some rural uninhabited areas in both Iraq and Syria[35] [36]

!!Image!Caliph!Date of birth!Reigned from!Reigned until
1Abu-Bakr Ibrahim bin Awwad al-Baghdadi28 July 197129 June 201427 October 2019
2Abu-Ibrahim Al-Hashimi Al-QuraishiOctober 197631 October 20193 February 2022
3Abu al-Hasan al-Hashimi al-QurashiUnknown10 March 202215 October 2022
4Abu al-Hussein al-Husseini al-QurashiUnknown30 November 202229 April 2023
5Abu Hafs al-Hashimi al-QurashiUnknown3 August 2023Present

See also

Bibliography

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Jazeera . Al . The Caliph . 2023-04-06 . interactive.aljazeera.com . en.
  2. McQuaid . Julia Voelker . September 2007 . The Struggle for Unity and Authority in Islam: Reviving the Caliphate? . Center for Strategic Studies . 1.
  3. Web site: 2014-07-01 . Successors to the prophet: Islam's caliphates . 2023-04-06 . The Seattle Times . en-US.
  4. Web site: Ekinci . Ekrem Buğra . 2017-03-03 . The rise and fall of the Islamic caliphate in history . 2023-04-06 . Daily Sabah . en-US.
  5. Office of the 33rd Lead Inspector General of the United States Department of Defense (May 2023) "OPERATION INHERENT RESOLVE LEAD INSPECTOR GENERAL REPORT TO THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS" (PDF) Retrieved 2023-05-04
  6. Web site: 2022-11-01 . The Umayyad Caliphate: The Largest Islamic State . 2023-04-06 . TheCollector . en.
  7. [Saïd Amir Arjomand]
  8. Book: Peters, Francis E. . Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land . . 2017 . 978-1-4008-8736-1 . Princeton Legacy Library . . 397 . 468351969 . 1994 . 14 June 2024 . 14 June 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240614020431/https://books.google.com/books?id=tdb6F1qVDhkC&pg=PA397#v=onepage&q&f=false . live .
  9. [#Bos04|Bosworth 2004]
  10. [#Hou93|Houtsma & Wensinck 1993]
  11. [#Lan04|Lane-Poole 2004]
  12. [#Bos04|Bosworth 2004]
  13. Book: Lambton . Ann . Ann Lambton . Lewis . Bernard . Bernard Lewis . The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west . 2 . 320 . Cambridge University Press . 1995 . 9780521223102. 14 March 2015.
  14. [#Asi92|As̜iroğlu 1992]
  15. [#Bos04|Bosworth 2004]
  16. https://books.google.com/books?id=Dh6jydKXikoC&dq=sack+of+mecca&pg=PA647 Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O
  17. [List of Caliphs#Lan04|Lane-Poole 2004]
  18. [List of Caliphs#Bos04|Bosworth 2004]
  19. [List of Caliphs#Lan04|Lane-Poole 2004]
  20. [List of Caliphs#Bos04|Bosworth 2004]
  21. Book: The History of Islam in Africa. Nehemia Levtzion. Nehemia Levtzion. Randall Pouwels. Ohio University Press. 81.
  22. Book: Jackson. Roy. Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State. 2010. Routledge. 9781136950360.
  23. Book: Hussein. S M. Structure of Politics Under Aurangzeb 1658–1707 . 2002. Kanishka Publishers Distributors (2002). 978-8173914898.
  24. Book: Banarsi Prasad Saksena . Banarsi Prasad Saksena . The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji . Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami . A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) . 5 . Second . 1992 . 1970 . The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House . 31870180 .
  25. Web site: Khilafat – Caliphate – The Guided Khilafat – Khilafat e Ahmadiyya – Al Islam Online. www.alislam.org.
  26. News: Adam Withnall. 2014-06-30. Iraq crisis: Isis declares its territories a new Islamic state with 'restoration of caliphate' in Middle East – Middle East – World. The Independent. 2014-07-04.
  27. News: 29 June 2014. ISIS Spokesman Declares Caliphate, Rebrands Group as "Islamic State". SITE Institute. 29 June 2014.
  28. News: 13 March 2015. Islamic State-controlled parts of Syria, Iraq largely out of reach: Red Cross. Reuters.
  29. [Yusuf al-Qaradawi]
  30. http://jihadology.net/2015/04/19/aq-is-power-rankings-april-2015/ Power rankings April 2015
  31. Web site: A Jihadi Civil War of Words: The Ghuraba' Media Foundation and Minbar al-Tawhid wa'l-Jihad .
  32. . See 6:00
  33. Office of the 33rd Lead Inspector General of the United States Department of Defense (May 2023) "OPERATION INHERENT RESOLVE LEAD INSPECTOR GENERAL REPORT TO THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS" (PDF) Retrieved 2023-05-04
  34. Web site: After Shekau: Confronting Jihadists in Nigeria's North East . 29 March 2022 .
  35. Web site: 5 ISIS Enclaves Remain in Central, Eastern Syria .
  36. "IS's concern continues to be maintaining control in places like the Muqdadiya and Khanaqin districts, Hawija, and Tarmiya

    https://musingsoniraq.blogspot.com/2023/02/violence-drops-in-iraq-in-january-2023.html

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