List of battles involving France in modern history explained

This is a chronological list of the battles involving France in modern history.

These lists do not include the battles of the French civil wars (as the Wars of Religion, the Fronde, the War in the Vendée) unless a foreign country is involved; this list includes neither the peacekeeping operations (such as Operation Artemis, Opération Licorne) nor the humanitarian missions supported by the French Armed Forces.

The list gives the name, the date, the present-day location of the battles, the French allies and enemies, and the result of these conflicts following this legend:

- 558

- 263

- 49

- 5

Modern history (1789–present)

National Convention (1792–1795)

See main article: List of battles of the War of the First Coalition.

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
War of the First Coalition (1792–1797)
	28 April 1792	Switzerland	None	Habsburg Empire	Victory
	28 April 1792	Belgium	None	Habsburg Empire	Victory
	29 April 1792	Belgium	None	Habsburg Empire	Defeat
	30 April 1792	Belgium	None	Habsburg Empire	Defeat
	23 June 1792	Belgium	None	Habsburg Empire	Defeat
	19 - 23 August 1792	France	None		Defeat
	24 August – 30 September 1792	France	None	Habsburg Empire	Victory
	12 September 1792	France	None	Habsburg Empire	Victory
	29 September – 8 October 1792	France	None		Victory
	19–21 October 1792	Germany	None		Victory
	6 November 1792	Belgium	None		Victory
	19 November – 1 December 1792	Belgium	None		Victory
	18 March 1793	Belgium	None		Defeat
	8 April – 12 July 1793	France	None		Defeat
	10 April – 23 July 1793	Germany	None	Hesse-Kassel Hesse-Darmstadt Electorate of the Palatinate	Defeat
	8 May 1793	France	None	Austria	Defeat
	23 May 1793	France	None	Habsburg Austria Hanover	Defeat
	25 May 1793	Italy	None		Defeat
	9 June 1793	Belgium	None		Victory
	13 June – 28 July 1793	France	None		Defeat
	31 July 1793	France	None		Indecisive
	24 August – 8 September 1793	France	None	Hanover	Victory
	8 September 1793	France	None	Archduchy of Austria Hesse-Kassel	Victory
	12 September 1793	France	None		Defeat
	13 September 1793	France	None		Victory
	18 September – 18 December 1793	France	None	French Royalists Naples and Sicily	Victory
	13 October 1793	France	None	Hesse-Kassel	Defeat
	16 October 1793	France	None		Victory
	28–30 November 1793	Germany	None		Defeat
Battle of Woerth-Froeschwiller	22 December 1793	France	None		Victory
	26 December 1793	France	None		Victory
	26 – 27 December 1793	France	None	Electorate of Bavaria	Victory
	5 February 1794		None		Defeat
	7–18 February 1794	France	None		Defeat
	4 April – 19 May 1794	France	None		Defeat
	11 April 1794 – 10 December 1794		None		Victory
	17–18 April 1794	Belgium	None		Victory
	24 April 1794	France	None	Habsburg Austria	Defeat
	24–28 April 1794	Italy	None		Victory
	26 April 1794	France	None	Habsburg Austria	Defeat
	29 April 1794	Belgium	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	18 May 1794	France	None		Victory
	22 May 1794	Belgium	None	Habsburg Austria	Defeat
	1 June 1794	France	None		Indecisive
	26 June 1794	Belgium	None	Brunswick-Lüneburg	Victory
	13 July 1794	France	None	Saxony	Victory
	July – 10 August 1794	France	None		Defeat
	18 September 1794	Belgium	None		Victory
	2 October 1794	Germany	None		Victory
	21 September 1794	Italy	None		Victory
	22 November 1794 – 7 June 1795		None		Victory
	8 March 1795	Mediterranean	None		Victory
	14 March 1795		None		Defeat
	23 June 1795	France	None		Defeat
	23 June – 21 July 1795	France	None	Chouans Émigrés	Victory
	13 July 1795	Mediterranean	None		Defeat
Battle of Île d'Yeu	26 August – 1 November 1795	France	None	Émigrés	Victory
	29 October 1795	Germany	None		Defeat
War of the Pyrenees (1793–1795)
Battle of Céret	20 April 1793	France	None		Defeat
	19 May 1793	France	None		Defeat
	23 May – 24 June 1793	France	None	Spain	Defeat
	17 September 1793	France	None		Victory
	22 September 1793	France	None		Defeat
	28–29 January 1794		None		Defeat
	30 April 1794	France	None	Spain Portugal	Victory
	24 July 1794	Spain	None		Victory
	13 August 1794	Spain	None	Spain Portugal	Victory
	15–17 October 1794	Spain	None	Spain	Victory
	17–20 November 1794	Spain	None	Spain	Victory
	28 November 1794 – 4 February 1795	Spain	None		Victory
	14 February 1795		None		Victory
Battle of Pontós	11 June 1795	Spain	None		Defeat

Directory (1795–1799)

See main article: List of battles of the War of the First Coalition.

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
War of the First Coalition (1792–1797)
	9 July 1796	Germany	None		Victory
	11 August 1796	Germany	None		Victory
	24 August 1796	Germany	None		Defeat
	24 August 1796	Germany	None		Victory
	3 September 1796	Germany	None		Defeat
	2 October 1796	Germany	None		Victory
	19 October 1796	Germany	None		Defeat
	24 October 1796	Germany	None		Defeat
	October 1796 – January 1797	Germany	None		Defeat
	13 January 1797		None		Defeat
	22–24 February 1797		None		Defeat
	18 April 1797	Germany	None		Victory
	20 April 1797	Germany	None		Victory
Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars (1796–1797)
	22 November 1795	Italy	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	10 April 1796	Italy	None		Defeat
	12 April 1796	Italy	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	13 April 1796	Italy	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	14–15 April 1796	Italy	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	16 April 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	21 April 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	7–9 May 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	10 May 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	30 May 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	4 July 1796 – 2 February 1797	Italy	None		Victory
	2–3 August 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	5 August 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	4 September 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	8 September 1796	Italy	None		Victory
Battle of La Favorita	15 September 1796	Italy	None		Victory
	6 November 1796	Italy	None		Defeat
	6–7 November 1796	Italy	None		Defeat
	12 November 1796	Italy	None		Defeat
	15–17 November 1796	Italy	None		Victory
Battle of La Favorita	16 January 1797	Italy	None		Victory
	14–15 January 1797	Italy	None		Victory
	3–4 February 1797	Italy	None		Victory
	16 March 1797	Italy	None		Victory
	21–23 March 1797	Italy	None		Victory
Tyrol Invasion	20 March–8 May 1797	Austria	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	17–25 April 1797	Italy	None		Victory
Irish Rebellion of 1798
	27 August 1798	Ireland			Victory
	5 September 1798	Ireland			Victory
	8 September 1798	Ireland			Defeat
	23 September 1798	Ireland			Defeat
	12 October 1798	Ireland	None		Defeat
Quasi-War
	7 July 1798		None		Defeat
Capture of USS Retaliation	20 November 1798		None		Victory
	9 February 1799		None		Defeat
French Campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)
	9–11 June 1798		None		Victory
	12 July 1798		None		Victory
	21 July 1798		None		Victory
	1–2 August 1798		None		Defeat
	2 September 1798 – 4 September 1800		None	Malta Portugal	Defeat
	21 October 1798		None		Victory
	14 December 1798		None		Victory
	8–19 February 1799		None		Victory
	3–7 March 1799		None		Victory
	20 March – 21 May 1799		None		Defeat
	16 April 1799		None		Victory
	25 July 1799		None		Victory
War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802)
	5 March 1798	Switzerland	None		Victory
	18 November 1798 – 2 March 1799	Greece	None		Defeat
	20–21 March 1799	Germany	None		Defeat
	23 March 1799	Switzerland	None		Victory
	25 March 1799	Germany	None		Defeat
	27 May 1799	Switzerland	None		Defeat
	13–14 August 1799	Switzerland	None		Victory
	14–15 August 1799	Switzerland	None		Defeat
	4–7 June 1799	Switzerland	None		Defeat
	10 September 1799	Netherlands			Defeat
	19 September 1799	Netherlands			Victory
	25–26 September 1799	Switzerland	None	Austria	Victory
Battle of Linth	25 September 1799	Switzerland	None		Victory
	2 October 1799	Netherlands			Defeat
	6 October 1799	Netherlands			Victory

Consulate (1799–1804)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Quasi-War (1798–1800)
	1 January 1800		None		Indecisive
	1-2 February 1800		None		Indecisive
	11 May 1800				Defeat
	22 July - 25 September 1800		None		Defeat
	12 October 1800		None		Defeat
	25 October 1800		None		Defeat
French Campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)
	20 March 1800		None		Victory
	8 March 1801		None		Defeat
	13 March 1801		None		Defeat
	21 March 1801		None		Defeat
	8 – 19 April 1801		None		Defeat
	May – June 1801		None		Defeat
	17 August – 2 September 1801		None		Defeat
War of the Second Coalition (1799–1802)
	3 December 1799	Germany	None		Defeat
	4–5 May 1800	Germany	None		Victory
	3 May 1800	Germany	None		Victory
	3 May 1800	Germany	None		Victory
	19 June 1800	Germany	None		Victory
	1 December 1800	Germany	None		Defeat
	3 December 1800	Germany	None	Habsburg Austria	Victory
	20 May – 9 June 1801	Portugal			Victory
	6 July 1801	Spain			Victory
	12 July 1801	Spain			Defeat
	4 and 15–16 August 1801		None		Victory
French Campaign in Italy (1799–1800)
	5 April 1799	Italy	None		Defeat
	April – 4 July 1799	Italy	None		Defeat
	27 April 1799	Italy	None		Defeat
	17–19 June 1799	Italy	None		Defeat
	15 August 1799	Italy	None		Defeat
	9 June 1800	Italy	None		Victory
	20 April – 4 June 1800	Italy	None		Victory
	14 June 1800	Italy	None		Victory
	25 December 1800	Italy	None		Victory
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
	December 1801 – December 1802		None		Defeat
	18 November 1803		None		Defeat

First Empire (1804–1814/1815)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
War of the Third Coalition (1803–1806)
	31 May – 2 June 1805				Victory
	22 July 1805	Spain			Defeat
	8 October 1805	Germany	None		Victory
	11 October 1805	Germany	None		Victory
	14 October 1805	Germany	None		Victory
	16–19 October 1805	Germany	None		Victory
	18 October 1805	Italy	None		Victory
	21 October 1805	Spain			Defeat
	30 October 1805	Italy	None		Victory
	3 November 1805	Spain	None		Defeat
	5 November 1805	Austria	None		Victory
	8 November 1805	Austria	None		Victory
	11 November 1805	Austria	None		Indecisive
	13 November 1805	Austria	None		Victory
	16 November 1805	Austria	None		Victory
	24 November 1805	Italy	None		Victory
	2 December 1805		None		Victory
	26 February – 18 July 1806	Italy	Italy Etruria Polish Legions		Victory
	21 April 1806		None		Indecisive
	4 July 1806	Italy	Italy Etruria Polish Legions		Defeat
	10 March 1806	Italy	Italy Etruria Polish Legions		Victory
	28 May 1806	Italy	None		Victory
War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807)
	9 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	10 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	14 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	14 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	16 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	17 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	25 October – 8 November 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	27 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	28 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	29 October 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	29–30 October 1806	Poland	None		Victory
	1 November 1806	Germany	None		Defeat
	6–7 November 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	7–22 November 1806	Germany	None		Victory
	November 1806	Poland	Polish Insurgents		Victory
	23 December 1806	Poland	None		Victory
	26 December 1806	Poland	None		Victory
	26 December 1806	Poland	None		Victory
	22 January - 11 December 1807	Poland			Defeat
	25 January 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	3 February 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	8 February 1807	Russia	None		Victory
	16 February 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	March – 2 July 1807	Poland	Kingdom of Italy Duchy of Warsaw	Sweden	Indecisive
	19 March – 24 May 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	1-3 April 1807	Germany	None		Defeat
	5–6 June 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	10 June 1807	Poland	None		Victory
	14 June 1807	Russia	None		Victory
	28/30 January – 24 August 1807	Germany	None		Victory
Peninsular War (1808–1814)
	19–30 November 1807	Portugal	None		Victory
	2 May 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	6–14 June 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	12 June 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	9–14 June 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	15 June – 13 August 1808	Spain			Defeat
	24–26 June 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	14 July 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	19–22 July 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	29 July 1808	Portugal	None		Victory
	17 August 1808	Portugal			Defeat
	20 August 1808	Portugal	None		Defeat
	31 October 1808	Spain	None		Indecisive
	5 November 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	7 November 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	10–11 November 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	23 November 1808	Spain			Victory
	30 November 1808	Spain			Victory
	16 December 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	20 December 1808 – 20 February 1809	Spain	Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	21 December 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	21 December 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	29 December 1808	Spain	None		Defeat
	30 December 1808	Spain	None		Victory
	1 January 1809	Spain	None		Defeat
	3 January 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	13 January 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	16 January 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	25 February 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	17 March 1809	Spain	None		Defeat
	28 March 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	20 March 1809	Portugal	None		Victory
	27 March 1809	Spain			Victory
	28 March 1809	Portugal	None		Victory
	6 May – 12 December 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	10–11 May 1809	Spain	None		Defeat
	12 May 1809	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	14 May 1809	Portugal	None		Victory
	15 June 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	18 June 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	27–28 July 1809	Spain	None		Indecisive
	8 August 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	11 August 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	12 August 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	18 October 1809	Spain	None		Defeat
	19 November 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	28 November 1809	Spain	None		Victory
	5 February 1810 – 24 August 1812	Spain	None		Defeat
	20 February 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	21 March 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	29 April – 14 May 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	26 April – 10 July 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	14 May – 18 June 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	11 July 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	24 July 1810	Portugal	None	Portugal	Victory
	25 July – 27 August 1810	Portugal	None		Victory
	27 September 1810	Portugal	None	Portugal	Defeat
	15 October 1810	Spain			Victory
	4 November 1810	Spain	None		Victory
	16 December 1810 – 2 January 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	19 February 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	5 March 1811	Spain	None	, Portugal	Indecisive
	13 March 1811				Defeat
	11 March 1811	Portugal	None	Portugal	Victory
	12 March 1811	Portugal	None	Portugal	Victory
	14 March 1811	Portugal	None		Victory
	25 March 1811	Portugal	None	Portugal	Defeat
	3 April 1811	Portugal	None	Portugal	Defeat
Siege of Figuières	10 April – 19 August 1811	Spain			Defeat
	14 April – 10 May 1811	Portugal	None	Portugal	Victory
	3–5 May 1811	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	5 May – 29 June 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	16 May 1811	Spain	None	Portugal Kingdom of Spain	Defeat
	25 May 1811	Spain	None	Portugal Kingdom of Spain	Defeat
	25 July 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	11 August 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	25 September 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	25 October 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	28 October 1811	Spain	None	Portugal Kingdom of Spain	Defeat
	5 November 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	29 November 1811		None		Defeat
	26 December 1811 – 6 January 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	29 December 1811	Spain	None		Victory
	22 February 1812		None		Defeat
	8–19 January 1812	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	29 January 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	16 March – 6 April 1812	Spain	None		Defeat
	11 April 1812	Spain	None		Defeat
	28–29 May 1812	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	31 May 1812	Spain	None		Victory
		11 June 1812	France	None	Portugal	Victory
	21 July 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	22 July 1812	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	23 July 1812	Spain	None		Defeat
	11 August 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	18 September – 22 October 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	23 October 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	25 – 29 October 1812	Spain	None	Portugal	Victory
Battle of San Muñoz	17 November 1812	Spain	None		Victory
	21 June 1813	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	3 – 11 June 1813	Spain	None		Victory
	7 July – 8 September 1813	Spain	None	Portugal	Victory
	28 July – 1 August 1813	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	7 July – 8 September 1813	Spain	None	Portugal	Defeat
	25 July – 2 August 1813		None	Portugal	Defeat
	25 July 1813	Spain	None	Spain	Victory
	25 July 1813	Spain	None		Victory
	31 August 1813	Spain	None		Defeat
	13 September 1813	Spain	None		Victory
	7 October 1813	France	None	Portugal	Defeat
	10 November 1813	France	None	Portugal	Defeat
	9–12 December 1813	France	None	Portugal	Defeat
	15 February 1814	France	None	Portugal	Defeat
	27 February 1814	France	None	Portugal Spain	Defeat
	10 April 1814	France	None	Portugal	Indecisive
	14 April 1814	France	None	Portugal	Defeat
War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)
	23 February 1809	France	None		Victory
	11–25 April 1809	France	None		Defeat
	12 April - 1 November 1809	Austria			Victory
	15 April 1809	Italy			Defeat
	19 April 1809	Germany	None		Victory
	19–23 April 1809	Germany			Victory
	20 April 1809	Germany			Victory
	21 April 1809	Germany			Victory
	22 April 1809	Germany			Victory
	24 April 1809	Germany			Victory
	26 April - 21 May 1809	Croatia	None		Victory
	27-30 April 1809	Italy			Defeat
	3 May 1809	Austria	None		Victory
	7–8 May 1809	Italy			Victory
	13 May 1809	Austria			Victory
	15-18 May 1809	Italy	None		Victory
	17 May 1809	Austria	Württemberg Kingdom of Saxony		Victory
	21–22 May 1809	Austria	None		Defeat
	25 May 1809	Austria	None		Victory
	31 May 1809	Germany	Danish auxiliaries Dutch auxiliaries		Victory
	14 June 1809	Hungary			Victory
	24–26 June 1809	Austria			Victory
	5–6 July 1809	Austria	Saxony		Victory
	7 July 1809	Austria	None		Victory
	8 July 1809	Austria	None		Defeat
	8 July 1809	Germany	None		Defeat
	9 July 1809	Austria	None		Victory
	10 July 1809	Austria	None		Victory
	10–11 July 1809	Czech Republic	None		Indecisive
	30 July – 9 December 1809	Netherlands			Victory
	10 September - 18 October 1809	Slovenia	None		Victory
Mauritius campaign (1809–1811)
	31 May 1809		None		Victory
	20 – 28 September 1809		None		Defeat
	18 November 1809		None		Victory
	3 July 1810		None		Victory
	7–9 July 1810		None		Defeat
	20–27 August 1810		None		Victory
	13 September 1810		None		Indecisive
	18 September 1810		None		Defeat
	29 November – 3 December 1810		None		Defeat
	20 May 1811		None		Defeat
French invasion of Russia (1812)
	23 July 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	25–27 July 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	30 July – 1 August 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	16–17 August 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	17–18 August 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	18 August 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	7 September 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	14 September 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	18 October 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	24 October 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	18–20 October 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	31 October 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	3 November 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	13–14 November 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Defeat
	15–18 November 1812	Russia	Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
	26–29 November 1812		Naples Duchy of Warsaw		Victory
War of the Sixth Coalition (1813–1814)
	7 February 1813		None		Indecisive
	2 May 1813	Germany	None		Victory
	20–21 May 1813	Germany	None		Victory
	6 June 1813	Germany	None		Defeat
	23 August 1813	Germany	None	Sweden	Defeat
	26 August 1813	Germany	None		Defeat
	26–27 August 1813	Germany	None	Austria	Victory
	30 August 1813		None		Defeat
	6 September 1813	Germany	None		Defeat
	16 September 1813	Germany	None		Defeat
	17 September 1813		None		Defeat
	16–19 October 1813	Germany	Italy Naples Duchy of Warsaw	Austrian Empire Sweden Saxony	Defeat
	30–31 October 1813	Germany	None		Victory
	5 November 1813	Mediterranean	None		Indecisive
	29 January 1814	France	None		Victory
	1 February 1814	France	None		Defeat
	8 February 1814	Italy			Indecisive
	10 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	11 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	12 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	14 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	17 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	18 February 1814	France	None		Victory
	27 February 1814	France	None		Defeat
	28 February 1814	France	None		Victory
Capture of Fort l'Écluse	1 March 1814	France	None		Victory
	7 March 1814	France	None		Victory
	9–10 March 1814	France	None	,	Defeat
	13 March 1814	France	None	,	Victory
	20–21 March 1814	France	None		Defeat
	25 March 1814	France	None		Defeat
	26 March 1814	France	None		Victory
	30 March 1814	France	None		Defeat
	30–31 March 1814	France	None		Defeat
Waterloo Campaign (1815)
	16 June 1815	Belgium	None		Victory
	16 June 1815	Belgium	None	United Netherlands Hanover Nassau	Indecisive
	18–19 June 1815	Belgium	None		Victory
	18 June 1815	Belgium	None	United Netherlands Hanover Nassau Brunswick	Defeat
	28 June 1815	France	None		Victory
	1 July 1815	France	None		Victory
	3 July 1815	France	None		Defeat
	3 July 1815	France	None		Defeat

Bourbon Restoration (1814/1815–1830)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Spanish civil War (1820–1823)
	31 August 1823	Spain	None		Victory
Greek War of Independence (1821–1830)
	20 October 1827	Greece		Ottoman Vilayet of Egypt	Victory
	1828–1833	Greece		Ottoman Vilayet of Egypt	Victory
French colonisation of Africa (1825–1911)
	14 June – 7 July 1830		None		Victory
French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)
	14 June – 7 July 1830		None		Victory

July Monarchy (1830–1848)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Belgian Revolution (1830)
	2–12 August 1831	Belgium			Victory
	15 November – 23 December 1832	Belgium	None		Victory
French conquest of Algeria (1830–1847)
	23 April 1832		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
	28 June 1835		None	Berbers Arabs	Defeat
Battle of the Sikkak	6 July 1836		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
First Siege of Constantine	21–27 November 1836		None	Berbers Arabs	Defeat
Second Siege of Constantine	10–13 October 1837		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
	February 1840		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
Battle of the Mouzaïa Pass	12 May 1840		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
	16 May 1843		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
	22–25 September 1845		None	Berbers Arabs	Defeat
First Carlist War (1833–1839)
	26 April 1836	Spain			Victory
	24 March 1837	Spain			Victory
First Franco-Moroccan War (1844)
	6 August 1844		None		Victory
	15–17 August 1844		None		Victory
	16 August 1844		None		Victory
Pastry War (1838–1839)
	27 November – 5 December 1838		None		Victory
Uruguayan Civil War (1839–1851)
	20 November 1845		United Kingdom		Victory
Far East Campaigns (1842–1896)
	1844–1845		None	Sultanate of Sulu	Victory
	15 April 1847		None	Vietnam	Victory
French-Tahitian War (1844–1847)
Battle of Mahaena	17 April 1844		None		Victory
Blockade of Raiatea	1845–1846		None		Defeat
Battle of Maeva	17 January 1846		None		Defeat
Battle of Punaruu	May 1846		None		Victory
Battle of Fautaua	17 December 1846		None		Victory

Second Republic (1848–1852)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Roman revolution (1849)
	1–3 July 1849	Italy	None		Victory
Pacification of Algeria (1849)
Battle of Zaatcha	16 July – 26 November 1849		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
French colonisation of Africa (1825–1911)
	26–27 November 1851		None		Indecisive

Second Empire (1852–1870)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Pacification of Algeria (1849)
	21 November–4 December 1852		None	Berbers Arabs	Victory
Crimean War (1853–1856)
	18–27 August 1854	Russia			Defeat
	August 1854				Victory
	20 September 1854	Russia			Victory
	17 October 1854 – 11 September 1855	Russia			Victory
	25 October 1854	Russia			Victory
	25 October 1854	Russia			Defeat
	5 November 1854	Russia			Victory
	17 February 1855	Russia			Victory
	12 May – 31 August 1855	Russia			Defeat
	7 September 1855	Russia	None		Victory
	11 September 1855	Russia			Victory
	17 October 1855				Victory
Second Franco-Trarza War (1855-1858)
	25 February 1855	Senegal	None	Emirate of Trarza	Victory
	21 April 1855	Senegal	None	Emirate of Trarza	Victory
Battle of Dagana	13 May 1857	Senegal	None	Emirate of Trarza	Victory
Franco-Toucouleur War (1855-1860)
	20 April – 18 July 1857		None		Victory
Battle of Guémou	25 October 1859	Mauritania	None	Toucouleur Jihad	Victory
Second Opium War (1856–1860)
	20 May 1858	China			Victory
	24–26 June 1859	China			Defeat
	12–21 August 1860	China			Victory
	18 September 1860	China			Victory
	21 September 1860	China			Victory
Cochinchina campaign (1858–1862)
	1 September 1858 – 22 March 1860				Defeat
	1858–1859				Victory
	February 1861				Victory
	12 April 1861				Victory
	16 December 1861				Victory
	22 March 1862				Victory
Franco-Austrian War (1859)
	20 May 1859	Italy			Victory
	31 May 1859	Italy			Victory
	3 June 1859	Italy	None		Victory
	4 June 1859	Italy			Victory
	24 June 1859	Italy			Victory
Taiping Rebellion (1861–1862)
	July 1861 – November 1862	China			Victory
French intervention in Mexico (1861–1867)
	19 April 1862		None		Victory
	28 April 1862		None		Victory
	4 May 1862		None		Defeat
	5 May 1862		None		Defeat
	17 May 1862		None		Victory
	13 June 1862		None		Victory
Battle of Orizaba	14 June 1862		None		Victory
Battle of La Hoya and Cruz Blanca	December 1862		None		Indecisive
	16 March – 17 May 1863		Second Mexican Empire		Victory
	5 May 1863		None		Victory
	10–12 January 1863		None		Victory
Battle of Nopalucan	February 1863		None		Victory
Capture of Jonuta	21 February 1863		None		Victory
	30 April 1863		None		Victory
	5 May 1863		None		Victory
	28–31 May 1863		None		Defeat
	3 June 1864		None		Victory
	22 December 1864				Defeat
	12 April – 21 June 1867		Second Mexican Empire Austro-Hungarian troops	Mexican Republicans United States	Defeat
Far East Campaigns (1842–1896)
	20 July – 14 August 1863, 5–6 September 1864	Japan			Victory
	October–November 1866		None		Defeat
Garibaldi's Expedition against Rome (1867)
	3 November 1867	Italy		volunteers	Victory
Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
	2 August 1870	Germany	None		Victory
	4 August 1870	France	None	Baden	Defeat
	6 August 1870	France	None		Defeat
	6 August 1870	France	None	Baden Württemberg	Defeat
	14 August 1870	France	None		Indecisive
	16 August – 23 September 1870	France	None	Württemberg	Defeat
	16 August 1870	France	None		Defeat
	18 August 1870	France	None		Victory
	20 August – 27 October 1870	France	None		Defeat
	23 August – 28 September 1870	France	None	Baden Württemberg	Defeat
	30 August 1870	France	None		Defeat
	31 August – 1 September 1870	France	None		Defeat
	1 September 1870	France	None		Defeat
	1 September 1870	France	None		Defeat

Third Republic (1870–1940)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Issue
Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
	18 October 1870	France	None		Defeat
	18 October 1870	France	None		Defeat
	29 October 1870 – 23 January 1871	France			Victory
	3 November 1870 – 18 February 1871	France	None	Baden	Indecisive
	9 November 1870		None		Indecisive
	9 November 1870	France	None		Victory
	27 November 1870	France	None		Defeat
	28 November 1870	France	None		Defeat
	1 December 1870	France	None		Victory
	2 December 1870	France	None		Defeat
	2–4 December 1870	France	None		Defeat
	8–10 December 1870	France	None		Defeat
	23–24 December 1870	France	None		Indecisive
	3 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
	9 January 1871	France	None		Victory
	11–12 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
	15–28 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
	19 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
	19 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
	September 1870 – 28 January 1871	France	None		Defeat
Pacification of Algeria (1871–1902)
	16 March 1871		None	Arabs	Victory
Massacre of the Flatters' Mission	16 February 1881		None	Arabs	Defeat
	7 May 1902		None		Victory
	17 August 1903		None		Victory
	2 September 1903		None		Victory
Garnier Expedition (1873–1874)
	20 November 1873	Vietnam	None		Victory
Battle of Phủ Lý	26 November 1873	Vietnam	None		Victory
Battle of Hải Dương	4 December 1873	Vietnam	None		Victory
	5 December 1873	Vietnam	None		Victory
Battle of Nam Định	11 December 1873	Vietnam	None		Victory
Battle of Hanoi	21 December 1873	Vietnam	None	Vietnam	Indecisive
Leewards War (1880–1897)
	16 February 1897		None		Victory
Tonkin Campaign (1883–1896)
	27 March 1883		None	Vietnam	Victory
	27–28 March 1883		None	Vietnam	Victory
	19 May 1883		None		Defeat
	15 August 1883		None		Victory
	20 August 1883		None		Victory
	1 September 1883		None	Black Flag Army	Victory
	December 1883		None	Black Flag Army Vietnam	Victory
	6–24 March 1884		None	Black Flag Army Vietnam	Victory
	12 April 1884		None	Black Flag Army Vietnam	Victory
	1886–96		None	Tonkinese	Victory
Sino–French War (1884–1886)
	23–24 June 1884		None		Defeat
	23–26 August 1884	China	None		Victory
	August 1884 – March 1885		None		Indecisive
	8 October 1884		None		Defeat
	8 October 1884		None		Victory
	19 November 1884		None		Victory
	23 November 1884 – 28 February 1885		None		Victory
	3–13 February 1885		None		Victory
	3–4 January 1885		None		Victory
	14–15 February 1885	China	None		Victory
	23 February 1885		None		Victory
	1 March 1885	China	None		Indecisive
	2 March 1885		None		Victory
	23 March 1885		None		Defeat
	24 March 1885		None	Black Flag Army	Defeat
Battle of Ky Lua	28 March 1885	Vietnam	None		Victory
	March 1885		None		Victory
Franco-Siamese conflict (1893)
	13 July 1893		None		Victory
Scramble for Africa (1881–1914)
	1881		None		Victory
	11–13 July 1882				Victory
	1883–1898		None		Victory
Battle of Cotonou	4 March 1890		None		Victory
	29 March 1890		None		Victory
Battle of Dogba	19 September 1892		None		Victory
Battle of Poguessa	4 October 1892		None		Victory
Battle of Adégon	6 October 1892		None		Victory
Siege of Akpa	15–26 October 1892		None		Victory
Battle of Kana	2 November 1892		None		Victory
	1893		None		Victory
	December 1894 – September 1895		None		Victory
	1895–1899	West Africa	None	African tribes	Victory
	1898	West Africa	None	African tribes	Victory
	1898	West Africa	None	African tribes	Victory
	17 July 1899				Defeat
	28 October 1899		None		Indecisive
	22 April 1900				Victory
	1909–1911		None		Victory
	1911	Morocco	None		Victory
	6 September 1912	Morocco	None	Moroccan resistance	Victory
Boxer Rebellion (1900–1901)
	1900–1901	China			Victory
	10–28 June 1900	China			Defeat
	13–14 July 1900	China			Victory
	4 August 1900	China			Victory
	5 August 1900	China			Victory
	August 1900	China			Victory
	20 June – 15 August 1900	China			Victory
First World War (1914–1918)
	6 August 1914 – 10 March 1916				Victory
	7–26 August 1914	France	None		Defeat
	10–28 August 1914	Belgium-France			Defeat
Battle of Bafilo	13 August 1914		None		Defeat
	15–23 August 1914	Belgium	None		Victory
	21 August 1914	Belgium	None		Defeat
	21–23 August 1914	Belgium	None		Defeat
	22 August 1914				Victory
	24 August – 7 September 1914	France	None		Defeat
	26 August 1914	France			Victory
	29 August 1914	France	None		Victory
	29–30 August 1914				Victory
	4–13 September 1914	France	None		Victory
	5–12 September 1914	France			Victory
	13 September 1914 – 28 September 1914	France			Indecisive
	19 September – 11 October 1914	France	None		Defeat
	22 September 1914		None		Defeat
	25–29 September 1914	France	None		Indecisive
	1–4 October 1914	France	None		Victory
	16–31 October 1914	France			Victory
	28 October 1914				Defeat
	29 October – 24 November 1914	Belgium			Victory
	13 November 1914		None	Zaian rebellion	Defeat
	20 December 1914 – 17 March 1915	France	None		Indecisive
	19 February 1915 – 9 January 1916	Turkey	British India Newfoundland		Defeat
	22 April – 25 May 1915	Belgium	British India		Victory
	28 April 1915	Turkey			Victory
	6–8 May 1915	Turkey			Defeat
	9–15 May 1915	France			Indecisive
	5 June 1915	Turkey			Defeat
Third Battle of Artois	15 September 1915 – 4 November 1915	France			Indecisive
	25 September – 6 November 1915	France	None		Indecisive
	17 October – 21 November 1915		None		Defeat
	21 February – 19 December 1916	France	None		Victory
	1–13 July 1916	France			Indecisive
	1 July – 18 November 1916	France	New Zealand		Indecisive
	9–18 August 1916				Defeat
	12 September 1916 – 11 December 1916				Victory
	12–14 September 1916				Victory
	October – November 1916				Victory
Battle of Funchal	2–3 December 1916	Portugal			Defeat
	17 December 1916 – 3 March 1917		None	Tuareg rebellion	Victory
	16 April – October 1917		None		Defeat
	16 April – October 1917	France	None		Defeat
	17–20 April 1917	France	None		Victory
	5–9 May 1917				Defeat
	18 May 1917		None		Defeat
	31 July – 6 November 1917	Belgium			Indecisive
Second battle of Verdun	20–24 August 1917	France	None		Victory
	24 October 1917	France	None		Victory
	31 July – 6 November 1917	Belgium	United Kingdom Australia New Zealand		Indecisive
	21 May – 18 July 1918	Belgium-France	Australia Canada New Zealand		Defeat
	27 May – 6 June 1918	France			Victory
	27 May – 6 August 1918	France			Victory
	28 May 1918	France			Victory
	29–31 May 1918	Greece			Victory
	1–6 June 1918	France			Victory
	15 July – 6 August 1918	France			Victory
	18 July 1918	France			Victory
	8–12 August 1918	France			Victory
	8 August – 11 November 1918	Belgium-France	United Kingdom Australia Canada New Zealand United States Belgium		Victory
	14–29 September 1918				Victory
	15 September 1918				Victory
	8 September 1918	France	United Kingdom		Victory
	19 September 1918				Victory
	19 September – 31 October 1918				Victory
	26 September – 11 November 1918	France			Victory
	14–19 October 1918	Belgium			Victory
	4 November 1918	France			Victory
Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (1918–1920)
	June 1918 – March 1920	Russia	United Kingdom		Defeat
	August 1918 – July 1920	Russia		Pro-Bolshevik forces	Defeat
Franco-Turkish War (1918–1921)
	13 November 1918 – 10 February 1923	Turkey	United Kingdom British Raj Italy		Victory
	21 January – 13 February 1920	Turkey			Defeat
	9 February – 11 April 1920	Turkey			Defeat
	1 April 1920 – 8 February 1921	Turkey			Victory
	27–28 May 1920	Turkey	None		Defeat
Franco-Syrian War (1919–1921)
	1919		None	Syrian insurgents	Victory
	1919–1920		None		Victory
	23 July 1920		None		Victory
Rif War (1920)
	8 September 1920		Spain		Victory
Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927)
	19–20 July 1925		None		Defeat
	2–3 August 1925		None		Defeat
	17 September 1925		None		Victory
	4–5 October 1925		None	Syria rebels	Victory
Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–1931)
	1928–1931				Victory

World War II (1939–1945)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Issue
World War II (1939–1945)
	7–16 September 1939	Germany	None		Indecisive
	9 April – 10 June 1940	Norway	Norway		Defeat
	April and early May 1940	Norway	Norway		Defeat
	9 April – 8 June 1940	Norway	Norway		Defeat
	10 May 1940				Defeat
	10–14 May 1940	Netherlands			Defeat
	10–18 May 1940	Netherlands			Defeat
	10–18 May 1940	Belgium			Defeat
	12–14 May 1940	Belgium			Victory
	12–14 May 1940	Belgium	None		Victory
	10 May – 22 June 1940	France	Czechoslovakia Poland Luxembourg		Defeat
	12–15 May 1940	France			Defeat
Battle of La Horgne	14–15 May 1940	France	None		Defeat
	17 May 1940	France	None		Defeat
	21 May 1940	France			Defeat
	22–26 May 1940	France			Defeat
	22–28 May 1940	Belgium/France			Defeat
	25–30 May 1940	France	None		Defeat
	28 May – 4 June 1940	France			Victory
	25 May – 3 June 1940	France			Defeat
	3 June 1940	France	None		Victory
Battle of Pont-de-l'Arche	9 June 1940	France	None		Defeat
	10–25 June 1940	France	None	Italy	Victory
	18–20 June 1940	France	None		Defeat
	3 July 1940		None		Defeat
	22–26 September 1940	South-East Asia	None		Defeat
	October 1940 – 9 May 1941		None		Indecisive
	9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941		India		Victory
	16–17 January 1941		None	Thailand	Victory
	31 January – 1 March 1941		None		Victory
	2 February – 1 April 1941	Eritrea			Victory
	10 April – 27 November 1941				Victory
	26 May – 11 June 1942		French Free Forces		Victory
	19 August 1942	France	Poland		Defeat
	23 October – 3 November 1942	Egypt			Victory
Battle of Ksar Ghilane	10 March 1943				Victory
	16–27 March 1943		New Zealand		Victory
	9 July – 17 August 1943	Italy			Victory
	1 December 1943 – 15 January 1943	Italy			Victory
	4 January – 19 May 1944	Italy	Poland Canada British India		Victory
	29 February 1944		None		Victory
	5–18 June 1944	France	None		Victory
	6 June – 25 August 1944	France	Free Polish Forces Free Belgian Forces Norway Free Czechoslovak Forces		Victory
	6 June 1944	France	Poland Norway		Victory
	6 June 1944	France			Victory
	17 June 1944	Italy			Victory
	15 August 1944	France			Victory
	19–25 August 1944	France			Victory
	27 August 1944 – 11 May 1945	France			Victory
	25 August 1944 – March 1945	France	and others		Victory
Liberation of Nice	28 August 1944	France	French Free Forces		Victory
	28 August 1944	France			Victory
	15 September 1944 – 8 May 1945	France			Victory
	16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945	Belgium			Victory
	1–25 January 1945	France			Victory
	20 January – 9 February 1945	France			Victory
	8 February – 8 May 1945	Germany			Victory
	9 March – 15 May 1945		none		Defeat
	4–12 September 1945				Victory

Fourth Republic (1946–1958)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Indochina War (1946–1954)
	December 1946		None		Victory
	April 1947		None		Victory
	October 1947 – 4 September 1949		None		Defeat
	7 October – 15 November 1947		None		Victory
	20 November – 22 December 1947		None		Victory
Battle of Phu Tong Hoa	25 July 1948		None		Victory
	15–18 September 1950		None		Defeat
	1–13 October 1950		None		Defeat
	19–17 January 1951		None		Victory
	23–28 March 1951		None		Victory
	30 May – 18 June 1951		None		Victory
	3–10 October 1951		None		Victory
	10 November 1951 – 25 February 1952		None		Victory
	29 October – 8 November 1952		None		Indecisive
	23 November – 2 December 1952		None		Victory
	1 December 1952 – 4 January 1953		None		Victory
	17–19 July 1953		None		Indecisive
	28 July 1953 – 10 August 1953		None		Indecisive
	August – October 1953		None		Indecisive
	15 October – 7 November 1953		None		Victory
	20–22 November 1953		None		Victory
	20 January 1954 – March 1954		None		Indecisive
	13 March – 7 May 1954		None		Defeat
	April 1954		None		Defeat
	24 June – 17 July 1954		None		Defeat
Korean War (1950–1953)
	31 December 1950 – 20 January 1951				Victory
	1 February 1951				Victory
	13–15 February 1951				Victory
	13 September – 15 October 1951				Victory
Algerian War (1954–1962)
	20 August 1955		None		Victory
	22–29 September 1955		None		Defeat
	7 January – 8 October 1957		None		Victory
	18 May 1956		None		Defeat
	23–25 May 1957		None		Victory
	4–12 August 1957		None		Victory
Suez Crisis (1956–1957)
	October 1956 – March 1957		Israel		Victory
	November 1956		Israel		Victory
Ifni War (1957–1958)
	10–21 February 1958				Victory

Fifth Republic (1958–present)

Battle	Date	Location	Allies	Enemies	Result
Algerian War (1954–1962)
	22 July 1959 – March 1960		none		Victory
Western Sahara War (1975–1991)
	December 1977 – July 1978				Indecisive
Shaba II (1978)
Battle of Kolwezi	18 May 1978				Victory
Chadian–Libyan conflict (1978–1987)
	1983–1984		None		Indecisive
	16 February 1986		None		Victory
	1986 – 1 August 2014		None		Indecisive
Gulf War (1990–1991)
	15 January 1991				Victory
	17–23 January 1991				Victory
Djiboutian Civil War (1991–1994)
	November 1991 – December 1994			FRUD Movement	Victory
Somali Civil War (1991–present)
	9 December 1992 – 4 May 1993			Various Somali factions	Defeat ^[1]
NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1993–1995)
	9–17 September 1993				Victory
	27 May 1995				Victory
	30 August – 20 September 1995				Victory
Rwandan Civil War 1990 - 93
	22 Jun – 21 Aug 1994				Defeat
Kosovo War (1999)
	24 March – 10 June 1999				Victory
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
	November 2001 – February 2002			Taliban insurgents,	Victory
	1–18 March 2002			Taliban insurgents,	Victory
Battle of Afghanya	8 April 2008			Taliban insurgents,	Victory
	18 August 2008			Taliban insurgents	Victory
	27 August – 5 September 2008				Victory
	14–23 March 2009				Victory
	13 February 2010 – 25 February 2010				Victory
First Ivorian Civil War (2002–2007)
	6 November 2004		None		Victory
Chadian Civil War (2005–2010)
	2–4 February 2008			UFDD rebels UFDD-F rebels RFC rebels	Victory
Invasion of Anjouan (2008)
	24–25 March 2008		Comoros		Victory
Campaign against Somali pirates (2008–present)
	4 April 2008		None		Victory
	June 2008 – present		Norway Ukraine		Ongoing
	16 September 2008		None		Victory
	9 April 2009				Victory
War in Somalia (2009–present)
	January 31, 2009 – Present		NATO Non-NATO allies	Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahedeen (HSM) Hizbul Islam (HI) Foreign Mujahideen al-Qaeda	Ongoing
	October 2011 – June 2012		Kenya Somalia		Victory
Military intervention in Libya (2011)
	18 March – 15 May 2011		Anti-Gaddafi forces	Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
	19–20 March 2011			Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
	19–31 March 2011		None	Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
	21–26 March 2011		Anti-Gaddafi forces	Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
	23 March – 31 October 2011			Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
	15 September – 20 October 2011		Anti-Gaddafi forces	Gaddafi loyalists	Victory
Second Ivorian Civil War (2011)
	31 March – 11 April 2011		Forces Nouvelles	Gbagbo loyalists Liberian mercenaries Young Patriots of Abidjan militia	Victory
Northern Mali conflict (2012)
	10–12 January 2013				Victory
	11 January 2013 – 15 July 2014				Victory
	14–21 January 2013				Victory
	27 January 2013		None		Victory
	9–11 February 2013				Victory
	20–23 February 2013				Victory
	19 February 2013 – 25 March 2013		None		Victory
	27 February – 1 March 2013				Victory
	6 March 2013				Victory
	12–17 March 2013				Victory
	20–21 March 2013				Victory
	24 March 2013		None		Victory
	30 March 2013 – 1 April 2013				Victory
	20 May 2013		Niger		Victory
	10 December 2013		None		Victory
Central African Republic conflict (2012–13)
	5 December 2013		MISCA		Victory
Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)
	1 August 2014		Mauritania Mali Niger Burkina Faso Chad		Ongoing
Iraqi insurgency (2011–present)
	11 June 2014 – 31 August 2014		Iraq		Victory
	1–19 August 2014		Iraq		Indecisive
	31 August – 25 October 2014				Victory
	16 June 2014 – present		Denmark		Ongoing
	19 September 2014 – present		None		Ongoing
	15 September 2014		Iraq		Victory
	2 March 2015 – 17 April 2015		Iraq		Victory
Syrian Civil War
	14 April 2018				Indecisive

See also

• Military history of France
• List of wars involving France
• List of battles involving France (disambiguation)
• French Armed Forces
• Deployments of the French military

Notes and References

1. Norrie MacQueen (2006). Peacekeeping and the International System. Routledge.