List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene explained

This is a list of South American animals extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE) and continues to the present day.^[1]

The list includes animal extinctions in the Galápagos, Falklands, and other islands near the continent. Extinct animals from the West Indies are covered in List of Antillian and Bermudan animals extinct in the Holocene. Extinctions from Easter Island, a territory of Chile in Polynesia, are covered in the List of Oceanian species extinct in the Holocene.

Many extinction dates are unknown due to a lack of relevant information.

Mammals (class Mammalia)

Opossums (order Didelphimorphia)

Opossums (family Didelphidae)

Possibly extinct

Armadillos, pampatheres, and glyptodonts (order Cingulata)

Chlamyphorid armadillos and glyptodonts (family Chlamyphoridae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Doedicurus clavicaudatus	South American pampas	Most recent remains at Arroyo Seco, Argentina dated to 4765-4445 BCE.
Eutatus seguini	Northern Argentina and Uruguay	Most recent remains at Arroyo Seco, Argentina dated to 6389-6060 BCE.^[4]
Glyptodon clavipes	Eastern Brazil to the Argentinian pampa	Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.
Glyptodon reticulatus	Southern Brazil	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Upper Ribeira Valley, southeastern Sao Paulo, Brazil but without direct datation.
Glyptotherium cylindricum	Florida and Texas to northeastern Brazil	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.
Hoplophorus euphractus	Eastern Brazil	Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.
Neosclerocalyptus ornatus	Southern South America	Most recent remains in Paraguay dated to 5120 BCE.^[5]
Neuryurus sp.	Eastern Argentina and Uruguay	Most recent remains at Lobería, Argentina dated to c. 19050-8050 BCE.^[6]
Panochthus tuberculatus	Argentina to southern Brazil	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Luján, Argentina but without direct datation.^[7]

Pampatheres (family Pampatheriidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Holmesina majus	Minas Gerais and Ceará, Brazil	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.
Pampatherium sp.	Mexico, Central and South America

Anteaters and sloths (order Pilosa)

Giant ground sloths (family Megatheriidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Eremotherium laurillardi	Southern United States to Brazil	Most recent remains in eastern Brazil dated to 7800-7740 BCE.^[9]
Megatherium americanum	Temperate South America and the Andes	Most recent remains at Campo Laborde, Argentina were dated to 5270-4310 BCE and show signs of human hunting and processing.^[10]

Mylodonts (family Mylodontidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Glossotherium robustum	South America	Most recent remains at El Cautivo, Ecuador dated to 6810-6650 BCE.
Lestodon armatus	Southern Brazil	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Upper Ribeira Valley, southeastern Sao Paulo, Brazil but without direct datation.
Mylodon darwini	Pampas and Patagonia	Most recent remains at Cueva del Milodón, Chile dated to 10935-8804 BCE.
Scelidodon chiliensis	Western South America	Most recent remains at Pampa de los Fósiles, Peru, dated to 7160-6760 BCE.

Scelidotherid ground sloths (family Scelidotheriidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Catonyx cuvieri	Eastern South America	Most recent remains at Lagoa Santa, Brazil dated to 7830-7430 BCE.
Scelidotherium leptocephalum	Southern South America	Most recent remains at Río Cuarto, Argentina dated to 5660-5540 BCE.^[11]
Valgipes bucklandi	Intertropical region of Brazil	Most recent remains at Lagoa Santa, Brazil dated to 9110-9030 BCE.^[12]

Nothrotheriid ground sloths (family Nothrotheriidae)

Elephant-like mammals (order Proboscidea)

Gomphotheres (family Gomphotheriidae)

Rodents (order Rodentia)

Cavies (family Caviidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
	Galea tixiensis	Río de la Plata basin to southern Bolivia	Most recent remains at the Tandilia mountains, Argentina dated to around 950 CE.^[14]
Giant capybara^[15]	Neochoerus sp.	Southern United States to Brazil	Found in sites of Minas Gerais, Bahia, and Rondonia, Brazil that date from the Late Pleistocene to early Holocene, but without exact dating.^[16]

Neotropical spiny rats (family Echimyidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments
Clyomys riograndensis	Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil	Most recent remains dated to 1750 BCE.^[18]
Dicolpomys fossor	Río de la Plata basin and sourthern Brazil	Most recent remains at Sambaquí de Puerto Landa, Argentina dated to 894-953 CE.^[19]
Proclinodontomys mordax	Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil	Most recent remains dated to 5250 BCE.

Hamsters, voles, lemmings, muskrats, and New World rats and mice (family Cricetidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
	Bibimys massoiai	Piauí, Brazil	Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur dated to 6943-3656 BCE.^[21]
Candango mouse	Juscelinomys candango	Brasilia, Brazil	Last collected in 1960. Presumed extinct when the area was urbanized.^[22]
Galápagos giant rat	Megaoryzomys curioi	Santa Cruz, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	Known from subfossil remains. Possibly extinct by introduced predators like feral dogs, cats, pigs, and black rats.^[23]
Darwin's Galápagos mouse	Nesoryzomys darwini	Santa Cruz, Galápagos Islands	Last recorded in 1930. Extinct due to competition, pathogens transmitted by, or predation by black rats, house mice, brown rats, and feral cats.^[24]
Indefatigable Galápagos mouse	Nesoryzomys indefessus	Santa Cruz and Baltra, Galápagos Islands	Last collected in 1934. Extinct due to competition, pathogens transmitted by, or predation by black rats, house mice, brown rats, and feral cats.^[25]
Vespucci's giant rat	Noronhomys vespuccii	Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil	Only recorded alive by Amerigo Vespucci in 1503; otherwise known from subfossil remains.^[26]

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
	Brucepattersonius talpinus	Lagoa Santa, Brazil	Known from Quaternary fossils.
Fossorial giant rat	Gyldenstolpia fronto	Chaco Basin to southeastern Brazil	Known from the holotype collected in the Argentinian Chaco in 1896, and four Quaternary fossils from Lagoa Santa, Brazil.^[27]
	Habrothrix clivigenis	Lagoa Santa, Brazil	Known from Quaternary fossils.
	Juliomys anoblepas
Zuniga's dark rice rat	Melanomys zunigae	Lomas de Atocongo, near Lima, Peru	Last recorded in 1949. Declined due to habitat degradation caused by goat grazing and mining activity.^[28]
	Oxymycterus cosmodius	Lagoa Santa, Brazil	Known from Quaternary fossils.

Bats (order Chiroptera)

Leaf-nosed bats (family Phyllostomidae)

Carnivorans (order Carnivora)

Dogs (family Canidae)

-- sortable-->"	Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Dire wolf	Aenocyon dirus	North America and western South America	Most recent remains at Talara, Peru dated to 7320-6840 BCE; however this date is uncalibrated and the age of the remains could be older. Other late remains from Luján, Argentina were older than the most recent stratigraphical section dated to 9050-8050 BCE.^[31]
Falkland Islands wolf	Dusicyon australis	Falkland Islands	Exterminated by sheep farmers in 1876.^[32]
	Dusicyon avus	Argentina and Uruguay	Most recent remains in the Pampas dated to 1232-1397, and in southernmost Patagonia to 1454-1626.^[33]
Fuegian dog	Lycalopex sp.	Tierra del Fuego and possibly southern Patagonia	Only domestic descendant of the culpeo, bred by the Selk'nam people. Disappeared during the Selk'nam genocide in the early 20th century.^[34] ^[35]
	Protocyon troglodytes	Middle South America^[36] to Yucatan^[37]	Most recent remains at Toca da Boa Vista, Brazil dated to 20,000-10,000 years ago.

Bears (family Ursidae)

-- sortable-->"	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Arctotherium bonariense	Argentina	Recorded from the Middle Pleistocene to the Early Holocene.
Arctotherium tarijense	Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Chile	Most recent remains at Cueva de los Chingues, Chile dated to 9310-9210 BCE.^[38]
Arctotherium wingei	Northeastern South America	Most recent remains at Muaco, Venezuela dated to 7320-6840 BCE. However, this datation is uncalibrated and the remains could be older.^[39]

Earless seals (family Phocidae)

Notoungulates (order Notoungulata)

Toxodonts (family Toxodontidae)

Litopterns (order Litopterna)

Macrauchenids (family Macraucheniidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Macrauchenia patachonica	Southwestern South America	Most recent remains at Centinela del Mar, Argentina dated to 9381-9281 BCE.^[42]
Xenorhinotherium bahiense	North and east South America	Found in the late Pleistocene to early Holocene of Serra do Ramalho, Brazil but without direct datation.

Odd-toed ungulates (order Perissodactyla)

Horses and allies (family Equidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Equus neogeus	South America	Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.
Hippidion saldiasi	Eastern South America	Most recent remains at Cueva del Medio, Chile dated to 10748-9456 BCE.^[43]

Even-toed ungulates (order Artiodactyla)

Camels and llamas (family Camelidae)

-- sortable-->"	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Hemiauchenia paradoxa	Northern Río de la Plata Basin and central Brazil^[44]	Found in Holocene sites of Argentina but without exact dates.
Palaeolama major	Northern and eastern South America	Most recent remains at Toca do Serrote do Artur, Brazil dated to 6660-4880 BCE.

Locally extinct

-- sortable-->"	Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Chilihueque	Population of Lama guanicoe	Central Chile	A third domestic South American camelid recorded by Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries, bred by the Mapuche and different from llamas and vicuñas. DNA analysis of remains from Mocha Island (where camelids were introduced by people) indicates that it was a population of Patagonian guanaco that was managed, or domesticated independently from the llama. It disappeared when indigenous communities switched to sheep and horse farming after colonization.^[45]
Gracile llama	Population of Lama vicugna	Argentina and the Strait of Magellan	Formerly considered a separate species, Lama gracilis. Most recent remains at Piedra Museo, Argentina dated to 7365-7155 BCE, though this datation is not calibrated and the remains could be older.^[46]

True deer (family Cervidae)

-- sortable-->"	Scientific name	Range	Comments
Antifer ultra	Río de la Plata Basin to central Chile	Most recent remains in Chile dated to around 7950 BCE. However this datation was not calibrated and the remains could be older.^[47]
Morenelaphus brachyceros	Temperate South America	Most recently dated to 8050-5845 BCE; however this datation was not calibrated and the remains could be older. Other remains from southern Uruguay were dated, and calibrated, to 10010-9907 BCE.^[48]

Birds (class Aves)

Landfowl (order Galliformes)

Chachalacas, guans, and curassows (family Cracidae)

Extinct in the wild

Waterfowl (order Anseriformes)

Ducks, geese, and swans (family Anatidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments
Niceforo's pintail	Anas georgica niceforoi	Central Colombia	Last recorded in 1952. Possibly extinct due to hunting and habitat degradation.
Fighting shelduck	Neochen pugil	Minas Gerais, Brazil	Known from the late Pleistocene or early Holocene of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.

Grebes (order Podicipediformes)

Grebes (family Podicipedidae)

Nightjars (order Caprimulgiformes)

Typical nightjars (family Caprimulgidae)

Possibly extinct

Swifts, treeswifts, and hummingbirds (order Apodiformes)

Hummingbirds (family Trochillidae)

-- sortable-->"	Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Bogotá sunangel	Heliantelus zusii	Northern Andes?	Only known from one skin purchased in Bogotá in 1909. It could have disappeared due to deforestation, though the original range is unknown.
Alejandro Selkirk Island firecrown	Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi	Alejandro Selkirk Island?, Juan Fernández Archipelago, Chile	Last recorded in 1908 (with doubts).

Possibly extinct

-- sortable-->"	Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Letitia's thorntail	Discosura letitiae	Bolivia	Only known from two males collected at an unknown locality in 1852.
Turquoise-throated puffleg	Eriocnemis godini	Northern Ecuador	Only known from the holotype collected in 1850, with an unconfirmed sighting in 1976. The original habitat at the holotype's location is almost certainly destroyed.^[52]

Rails and cranes (order Gruiformes)

Rails (family Rallidae)

-- sortable-->"	Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments
Peruvian rail	Rallus semiplumbeus peruvianus	Peruvian highlands and possibly Ecuador	Only known from the holotype collected in 1886, which is now lost.
	Rallus sp.	Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil	A flightless species known from subfossil remains, presumably extinct due to predation by introduced mammals.^[53]

Shorebirds (order Charadriiformes)

Sandpipers (family Scolopacidae)

Possibly extinct

Storks and allies (order Ciconiiformes)

Storks (family Ciconiidae)

New World vultures (order Cathartiformes)

New World vultures and condors (family Cathartidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments
	Pleistovultur nevesi	Matozinhos, Brazil	Known from a humerus dated around 10560-8040 BCE. Presumed extinct as a consequence of the disappearance of the megafauna.
Winge's vulture	Wingegyps cartellei	Bahia and Minas Gerais, Brazil	Known from the late Pleistocene or early Holocene of Lagoa Santa.^[55]

Owls (order Strigiformes)

True owls (family Strigidae)

Possibly extinct

Parrots (order Psittaciformes)

Holotropical parrots (family Psittacidae)

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Glaucous macaw	Anodorhynchus glaucus	Border area of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay	Last recorded in Mbaracayu, Paraguay in 2001. Declined due to clearance of gallery forests for agriculture and livestock grazing, and possibly also hunting and capture of animals for the exotic pet trade.^[56]
Sinú parakeet	Pyrrhura subandina	Sinú Valley, Córdoba Department, Colombia	Last recorded in 1949. Declined due to habitat loss to agriculture and cattle grazing, hunting, trapping for the pet trade, and pollution with agrochemicals.^[57]

Extinct in the wild

Perching birds (order Passeriformes)

Antpittas (family Grallariidae)

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments
Táchira antpitta	Grallaria chtonia	Southwestern Táchira, Venezuela	Last collected in 1955-1956. Declined due to extensive deforestation of its range for agricultural use.
Antioquia brown-banded antpitta	Grallaria milleri gilesi	Santa Helena, Antioquia, Colombia	Only known from the holotype, collected in 1878. The type locality has since been deforested for coffee cultivation and other agriculture.

Ovenbirds (family Furnariidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments
Cryptic treehunter	Cichlocolaptes mazarbarnetti	Alagoas and Pernambuco, Brazil	Last recorded in 2007. Extinct due to deforestation.
Alagoas foliage-gleaner	Philydor novaesi		Last recorded in 2011. Extinct due to deforestation.

Antbirds (family Thamnophilidae)

Possibly extinct

Tyrant flycatchers (family Tyrannidae)

Reptiles (class Reptilia)

Turtles and tortoises (order Testudines)

Tortoises (family Testudinidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Pinta Island tortoise	Chelonoidis niger abingdonii	Pinta, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	The last wild individual (Lonesome George) was captured in 1972 and died in Santa Cruz's Tortoise Center in 2012, but hybrid descendants survive in northern Isabela Island. Declined due to hunting and habitat destruction by grazing feral goats.^[63]
Floreana giant tortoise	Chelonoidis niger niger	Floreana, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	Disappeared from the wild in the mid-19th century, though hybrids survive in captivity and in northern Isabela Island. Likely extinct due to hunting and the impact of introduced mammals including pigs, dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, cattle, black rats and house mice.^[64]
Santa Fe Island tortoise	Chelonoidis niger 'Santa Fe Island'	Santa Fe, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	Undescribed lineage, known from subfossil bones.^[65]

Amphibians (class Amphibia)

Frogs (order Anura)

True toads (family Bufonidae)

Possibly extinct

Darwin's frogs (family Rhinodermatidae)

Possibly extinct

Rain frogs (family Strabomantidae)

Possibly extinct

Ray-finned fish (class Actinopterygii)

Catfishes (order Siluriformes)

Pencil catfishes (family Trichomycteridae)

Possibly extinct

Toothcarps (order Cyprinodontiformes)

Pupfishes (family Cyprinodontidae)

Possibly extinct

Ovalentaria incertae sedis

Possibly extinct

Starfishes (class Asteroidea)

Possibly extinct

Insects (class Insecta)

Beetles (order Coleoptera)

Predaceous diving beetles (family Dytiscidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Megadytes ducalis	Condeúba, Bahia, Brazil	Only known from individuals collected in the 19th century.^[75]
Meridiorhantus orbignyi	Argentina and Brazil^[76]

Clitellates (class Clitellata)

Possibly extinct

Slugs and snails (class Gastropoda)

Scientific name	Range	Pictures
Tomigerus gibberulus	Brazil^[80]
Tomigerus turbinatus	Brazil^[81]

Unassigned order

Extinct in the wild

See also

• • Holocene extinction List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene
• List of Antillian and Bermudan animals extinct in the Holocene
• Peopling of the Americas

External links

• The Extinction Website
• IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Notes and References

1. Walker . Mike . Johnsen . Sigfus . Rasmussen . Sune Olander . Popp . Trevor . Steffensen . Jorgen-Peder . Gibrard . Phil . Hoek . Wim . Lowe . John . Andrews . John . Bjo Rck . Svante . Cwynar . Les C. . Hughen . Konrad . Kersahw . Peter . Kromer . Bernd . Litt . Thomas . 2009 . Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records . live . . 24 . 1 . 3–17 . 2009JQS....24....3W . 10.1002/jqs.1227 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131104131948/http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf . 2013-11-04 . 2022-04-24 . free . David J. . Lowe . Takeshi . Nakagawa . Rewi . Newnham . Jakob . Schwander.
2. Flores, D. . 2016 . Cryptonanus ignitus . 2016 . e.T41320A22177809 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41320A22177809.en . 11 November 2021.
3. Pavan, S. . 2016 . Monodelphis unistriata . 2016 . e.T13703A22171555 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T13703A22171555.en . 11 November 2021.
4. Stuart, A.J. (2021) Vanished Giants: The Lost World of the Ice Age. University of Chicago Press, 288 pages.
5. Zurita, A. E. (2007). Sistemática y evolución de los Hoplophorini (Xenarthra: glyptodontidae: hoplophorinae. Mioceno tardío-Holoceno temprano). Importancia bioestratigráfica, paleobiogeográfica y paleoambiental. (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Nacional de La Plata).
6. Carlini, A. A. (2006) Neuryurus (Xenarthra, Glyptodontidae) in the Lujanian (late Pleistocene–early Holocene) of the Pampean region. N. Jb. Geol. Paläont. Mh., pp. 78-88.
7. Fariña, R. A., Vizcaíno, S. F., & Bargo, M. S. (1998). "Body mass estimations in Lujanian (late Pleistocene-early Holocene of South America) mammal megafauna". Mastozoología Neotropical, 5 (2), 87-108.
8. Ghilardi, A. M., Fernandes, M. A., & Bichuette, M. E. (2011). "Megafauna from the Late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits of the Upper Ribeira karst area, southeast Brazil". Quaternary International, 245 (2), 369-378.
9. Dantas, M.A.T., & Cozzuol, M.A. (2016). "The Brazilian intertropical fauna from 60 to about 10 ka BP: taxonomy, dating, diet, and Paleoenvironments". In Marine Isotope Stage 3 in Southern South America, 60 KA BP-30 KA BP, pages 207-226.
10. Gutiérrez, M.A. et al. (2010). "Supervivencia diferencial de mamíferos de gran tamaño en la región pampeana en el Holoceno temprano y su relación con aspectos paleobiológicos". In Zooarqueología a principios del siglo XXI: Aportes teóricos, metodológicos y casos de estudio. Ediciones del Espinillo, Buenos Aires, 231-242.
11. Cruz, L. E., Bargo, M. S., Tonni, E. P., & Figini, A. J. (2010). "Radiocarbon date on megafauna from the late Pleistocene-early Holocene of Córdoba province, Argentina: stratigraphic and paleoclimatic significance". Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas, 27 (3), 470-476.
12. Miño-Boilini, Á. R., & Quiñones, S. I. (2020). "Los perezosos Scelidotheriinae (Xenarthra, Folivora): taxonomía, biocronología y biogeografía". Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, 22 (2), 201-218.
13. Rodríguez-Flórez, C. D., Rodríguez-Flórez, E. L., & Rodríguez, C. A. (2009). "Revisión de la fauna pleistocénica Gomphotheriidae en Colombia y reporte de un caso para el Valle del Cauca. Boletín Científico. Centro de Museos". Museo de Historia Natural, 13 (2), 78-85.
14. Quintana, C. (2005). Despiece de microroedores en el Holoceno Tardío de las Sierras de Tandilia (Argentina). Archaeofauna, 14, 227-241.
15. Fariña, R.A., Vizcaíno, S.F., & De Iuliis, G. (2013) Megafauna: Giant beasts of Pleistocene South America. Indiana University Press, 435 pages.
16. da Silva, R. C., Berbert-Born, M., Bustamante, D. E. F., Santoro, T. N., Sedor, F., & dos Santos Avilla, L. (2019). "Diversity and preservation of Pleistocene tetrapods from caves of southwestern Bahia, Brazil". Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 90, 233-254.
17. De Santi, N. A., Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., Piñero, P., Morgan, C. C., Medina, M. E., ... & Tonni, E. P. (2020). A new peculiar species of the subterranean rodent Ctenomys (Rodentia, Ctenomyidae) from the Holocene of central Argentina. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 100, 102499.
18. Hadler, P., Verzi, D. H., Vucetich, M. G., Ferigolo, J., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2008). Caviomorphs (Mammalia, Rodentia) from the Holocene of Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil: systematics and paleoenvironmental context. Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia, 11(2), 97-116.
19. Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., Hadler, P., Castro, J. C., & Tonni, E. P. (2018). Occurrence of Dicolpomys (Echimyidae) in the late Holocene of Argentina: the most recently extinct South American caviomorph genus. Quaternary International, 490, 123-131.
20. Verzi, D. H., Olivares, A. I., De Santi, N. A., Morgan, C. C., López, J. M., & Chiavazza, H. (2024). A new extinct desert rodent from the Holocene of South America and its bearing on the diversity of Octodontidae (Hystricognathi). Journal of Mammalogy, 105(1), 59-72.
21. Das Neves, S. B., Pardiñas, U. F., Hadler, P., Mayer, E. L., & Ribeiro, A. M. (2020). A new fossil cricetid (Rodentia, Sigmodontinae) from northeastern Brazil with remarks on small mammal extinctions in the tropical Quaternary. Journal of Mammalogy, 101(4), 1133-1147.
22. Roach, N. . 2019 . Juscelinomys candango . 2019 . e.T10946A160756258 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T10946A160756258.en . 11 November 2021.
23. Weksler, M. . Tirira, D.G. . 2019 . Megaoryzomys curioi . 2019 . e.T136657A22330270 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T136657A22330270.en . 11 November 2021.
24. Tirira, D.G. . Weksler, M. . 2019 . Nesoryzomys darwini . 2019 . e.T14706A22390382 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T14706A22390382.en . 11 November 2021.
25. Tirira, D.G. . Weksler, M. . 2019 . Nesoryzomys indefessus . 2019 . e.T14708A22390443 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T14708A22390443.en . 11 November 2021.
26. Weksler, M. . Costa, L.M. . 2019 . Noronhomys vespuccii . 2019 . e.T136692A22333193 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T136692A22333193.en . 11 November 2021.
27. Pardinas, U. . D'Elia, G. . Teta, P. . Patterson, B. . 2018 . Gyldenstolpia fronto . 2018 . e.T11062A22388720 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T11062A22388720.en . 15 November 2021.
28. Zeballos, H. . Vivar, E. . 2019 . Melanomys zunigae . 2019 . e.T13048A22344408 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T13048A22344408.en . 11 November 2021.
29. Pardiñas, U.F.J., & Tonni, E.P. (2000). "A giant vampire (Mammalia, Chiroptera) in the Late Holocene from the Argentinean pampas: paleoenvironmental significance". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 160 (3-4), 213-221.
30. Book: Turvey, Sam. Holocene Extinctions. 2009. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-953509-5. 29 February 2012.
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