List of Italian inventions and discoveries explained

''.[1] ]]Italian inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by Italians.

Italian people – living in the Italic peninsula or abroad – have been throughout history[2] the source of important inventions and innovations in the fields of writing,[3] [4] calendar,[5] mechanical[6] and civil engineering,[7] [8] [9] [10] musical notation,[11] celestial observation,[12] perspective,[13] warfare,[14] [15] [16] [17] long distance communication,[18] [19] [20] storage[21] and production[22] [23] of energy, modern medicine,[24] polymerization[25] [26] and information technology.[27] [28]

Italians also contributed in theorizing civil law,[29] [30] scientific method (particularly in the fields of physics and astronomy),[31] double-entry bookkeeping,[32] mathematical algebra[33] and analysis,[34] [35] classical and celestial mechanics.[36] [37] Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.

The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognized to be Italian.

Alphabetical list of Italian Inventions

A

the world's first airplane having a "Tractor" configuration, propeller on the front, was the Goupy No.2 (first flight on 11 March 1909) designed by Mario Calderara and financed by Ambroise Goupy at the French firm Blériot Aéronautique.[38] At the time, it was the fastest airplane in existence. Later, this solution became the most common type of biplane used in the First World War.[39]

invented by Giovan Battista Amici

invented by Giovan Battista Amici[40]

used for teaching anatomy in early modern universities; the first one being at the university of Padova (1595).[41]

developed by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450.[42]

an open source computer hardware and software company, project, and user community that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical world. It is now becoming an essential component for building AI Robots. It was created in 2003.

the Cei-Rigotti is considered the first practical automatic rifle.

B

C

Romans made candles using rendered animal fat (called tallow), beginning around 500 BC.[50]

a valve design that found significant application in steam locomotives.

the first public, legal and government-owned casino was a Venetian four-story gambling house called "Ridotto", opened in 1638.[52]

later perfected by Luigi Lilio becoming the Gregorian calendar, which is today's internationally accepted civil calendar, also known as the Western or Christian calendar.[53]

with 'The King Violoncello' by Andrea Amati being the earliest known bass instrument of the violin family to survive.[54]

the first machine that could be characterized as a centrifugal pump was a mud lifting machine that appeared as early as 1475 in a treatise by the Italian Renaissance engineer Francesco di Giorgio Martini.[55]

is the precursor of modern books, having defined the reference format of virtually all the books of Western civilization. Invented during Roman times, its adoption was later spread by Christianity.[56]

generally featuring a proportional scale, it could be used for calculus of infinitesimals and proportions of geometric figures. There are three types:[59]

for edification purposes, more resilient than modern concrete.[62] [63]

initially meaning a type of sweet, then used for analogy to indicate little chalk balls used in Italy during carnival festivities. Mangilli di Crescenzago (Milan) is credited as an early inventor of paper confetti.[64]

a device invented by Roman engineers to transform circular motion into linear motion.

Roman naval boarding device.[65]

Imperial Roman form of the Corinthian order.

D

a new 3D printer capable of printing entire buildings invented in 2004 by Enrico Dini.[77]

E

perfume developed by Johann Maria Farina in 1709.[78]

from the Greek enkýklios paidèia, meaning a set of doctrines constituting a complete education. The comprehensive works of Aristotle can be considered encyclopedic (covering politics, rhetoric, ethic, aesthetic, psychology, biology, math). The first Latin encyclopedia was written by Cato the Elder in an attempt to mitigate the influence of Greek culture. He wrote for his son an "encyclopedia" of what he believed to be the necessary subjects for the Roman citizen: agriculture, rhetoric, medicine, law and warfare. Marcus T. Varro wrote a second, more complete and systematic encyclopedia, covering nine disciplines: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture. Plinius the Elder wrote Historia naturalis, the first encyclopedia to survive as a complete work. Marziano F. Capella wrote an allegoric encyclopedia in prose and verses, De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae[81] . These encyclopedias, along with the works of Cassiodorus and Boethius, paved the way for the medieval seven liberal arts.[82]

discipline, part of economic science, which establishes the logical and methodological principles allowing a reasoned, objective and generally valid formulation of the esteem of the monetary value of economic goods.[86] The first estimative surveys of a normative character took shape with the Italian Catasti a Valore (translated, land-value registers), called Estimi a Apprezzi. Florentine estimate method was already codified in the thirteenth century. From the sixteenth century the land, merchant and then civil esteems of the capital began to spread in Italy.[87] The first modern treaty on Estimo was Trattato della stima dei Beni Stabili by Cosimo Trinci, who introduced the concept of ascending and descending influences on the capitalization rate according to the different land's characteristics. Also see Roman Cadastre.

invented by Alessandro Volta[88] and Marsilio Landriani. Thanks to this instrument Lavoisier discovered the chemical composition of water.[89]

F

The earliest firefighters were in the city of Rome. In 60 A.D., Roman emperor Nero established a corps of Vigiles, to protect Rome from disastrous fires.[96]

G

Procopio Cutò is credited with being the inventor of modern gelato.[98] In 1903 Italo Marchioni patended a machine for producing the gelato cone.[99]

the first one being built in Tuscany (1904) by Piero Ginori Conti.[103] [104] [105] The first Italian industrial use of geothermal energy dates 1827.[106]

a typical Venetian boat.[108]

The device was invented by the Romans in approximately 260 BC.[109]

The first guildhalls appeared in Rome.

H

a calendar obtained by adding 10000 years to the current Gregorian calendar, first proposed by Cesare Emiliani in 1993.[111] [112]

I

designed by Federico Faggin, who etched his initials "FF" on a corner of the chip prototype as his signature.[122] Faggin, Marcian Hoff and Stanley Mazor have been awarded with the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by the President of the United States Barack Obama for their work in creating the first commercial microprocessor.[123]

the first high-performance 8-bit microprocessor in the market, using the faster n-channel SGT. The 8080 was conceived and designed by Faggin, and designed by Masatoshi Shima under Faggin's supervision.

The earliest type of infill, called opus craticum by the Romans.

Frank Zamboni invented the ice resurfacer which is named after him.

J

L

M

different classes of plastic-like starch-based biodegradable kind of polymers researched and mass-produced by the Italian company Novamont.[132] [133] [134] [135]

Sometimes credited as the first compound microscope, Galileo Galilei found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope, maybe even turning it around backwards, to view near by small objects.[136] This method was combersom since he had to extend his 2 foot long telescope out to 6 feet to view objects that close.[137] After seeing a purpose built compound microscope by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, Galileo built his own improved version.[138] [139] [140] Giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625[141] (Galileo had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye").

made possible by the pioneering work and research of Guido Horn d’Arturo.[151]

N

O

musical instrument invented by Giuseppe Donati

the first public opera house was the "Teatro San Cassiano" opened in Venice in 1637 and survived until 1800.[157]

P

in 1740 the Venetian Paolo Adami opened the first pasta factory.[161] Buitoni mechanical pasta factory, founded in 1827, is the oldest in the world.[162] The French machine Marseillais Purifier speeded up the separation of semolina flour from the bran. In Italy various artificial exsiccation techniques were developed.[163] [164]

an acoustic, stringed musical instrument played using a keyboard, with hammers striking the strings, invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in 1709.[169]

Q

R

radio-electric apparatus that enables to determinate the direction, and thus the position, of transmission of the radio waves emitted.[180] Applied in radio-assisted navigation, it represented the oldest (as well as one of the most important) instrument.[181] [182] To the development contributed Ettore Bellini,[183] militar engineer Alessandro Tosi,[184] and Alessandro Artom (inventor of the "cross-frame" r. for long and medium length waves transmitters).[185] [186]

S

the first scientific society was the Academia Secretorum Naturae founded in Naples in 1560 by the polymath Giambattista della Porta.[197]

a deliberative assembly of the Romans, lasting from the 8th century BC to at least the 7th century AD. The term senate comes from the Latin senatus or "Assembly of Elders". Previous councils of elders are known in Greece and in the Greek cities of Hellenistic and Roman ages; there was also a similar organism in Carthage. Rome established the senate as one of the fundamental institutions of the state and, for a long time, the main responsible for both domestic and foreign policy. Until the 15th century, the magistracy of the (roman) senator appointed by the Pope, along with magistrates of popular nomination (i.e. tribunes, reformers, conservatories), retained real authority, lasting with a symbolic role until the 19th century.[200]

T

the first one being built for the Vatican in 1886 by Giovanni Battista Marzi.[217]

invented by Galileo Galilei in 1593.

a universal reversible logic gate invented by Tommaso Toffoli.

Tarot, any of a set of cards used in tarot games and in fortune-telling. Tarot decks were invented in Italy in the 1430s by adding to the existing four-suited pack a fifth suit of 21 specially illustrated cards called trionfi (“triumphs”) and an odd card called il matto (“the fool”).[230]

One of the earliest reference to tarot triumphs is given c. 1450–1470 by a Dominican preacher in a sermon against dice, playing cards and 'triumphs'. References to the tarot as a social plague continue throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, but there are no indications that the cards were used for anything but games anywhere. As philosopher and tarot historian Sir Michael Dummett noted, "it was only in the 1780s, when the practice of fortune-telling with regular playing cards had been well established for at least two decades, that anyone began to use the tarot pack for cartomancy."[231]

a form of life insurance developed by Lorenzo De Tonti in 1653.

invented by the Italian G. B. Luppis and perfected by the English R. Whitehead.[232]

used for the electromagnetic detection of cancerous tissue, was developed in 1992 by Italian engineer Clarbruno Vedruccio.

the first recorded triumphal arches were set up in the time of the Roman Republic.[235]

in 1575 the venetian printer and bookseller Francesco Rampazetto[236] created the first prototype of a machine that could impress letters on a piece of paper by means of "tactile writing".[237] [238] In 1714 the English engineer Henry Mill patented a typewriter without fabricating it. Early versions of the typewriter are reported in Austria in 1779 and Italy just after 1800 by Pellegrino Turri and Pietro Conti di Cilavegna.[239] In 1855 Novara lawyer Giuseppe Ravizza built and patented the Cembalo scrivano or macchina da scrivere a tasti (lit. "key based typing machine"), modeling its keyboard design on the keys of pianoforte. The Cembalo Scrivano is recognized as the most advanced typing machine until the invention of Remington. Cembalo scrivano was also capable of printing upper and lower cases that didn't exist yet in the first Remington typewriter machine.

U

V

carnival is an annual festival held in different places around the world, with an early example dating back in Venice to at least 1268. The most peculiar feature of Venice's celebration has laid in the extensive use of masks.[254] The rite of Carneval has obscure origins, possibly Roman.[255] [256]

W

Z

Medical discoveries and techniques

[265] Vincenzo Tiberio is considered by notable sources to be discoverer of antibiotics. By 1895 the Italian physician had already observed, scientifically reproduced and written a research on the antibiotic effect of "cellular products, soluble in water" extracted from Penicillium glaucum, Mucor mucedo and Aspergillus flavescens[266] and sterilized in the experimentation[267] (both in vitro and in vivo[268]). It can't be ruled out the possibility of his findings to have been taken as a starting point for later European researches.[269]

although previously theorized, only in 1784 the first artificial insemination in a viviparous animal[274] was officially performed and reported by the Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani.[275]

a silver staining technique which was first performed by Camillo Golgi. It helped the study of the nerve cells.[276]

since Galen times it was believed that the internal human body circulation was separated in two different circuits: veins system, carrying food to the body, and arteries system, responsible for the flowing pneuma or "circulating air" in the body that was necessary to vital functions. Although many beliefs of Galen have been disproved by many Italian anatomists during Renaissance, the first who guessed blood did not mix in the heart and, instead, formed a single circulating system passing through the lungs, was the Spanish physician Miguel Serveto. However, his works were largely unknown for a long time as he was burned at the stake with his books for heresy by order of the city's governing council of Geneva, and it was an Italian anatomy professor, Realdo Colombo, who validated the intuitions of Servetus, proving that cardiac septum is impermeable to blood. He also spoke correctly about the existence of pulmonary circulation. Girolamo Fabrizi d’Acquapendente (1537-1619) was the first to study the valves of the veins, but it was Andrea Cesalpino the one who described the circulation of blood in the body. Cesalpino showed that the heart, not the liver, is the engine that physically pumps the blood into the vessels: starting from the arteries to capillaries, blood reaches the whole body, then it returns through the veins up to the heart. He used for the first time the term blood circulation and he demonstrated that in veins and arteries flows only blood, not pneuma, and that the passage of blood from arteries to veins through capillaries is due to difference of pressure. It remains famous his experiment of ligature of veins then resumed by William Harvey in order to prove the blood flow course in veins. Finally, Marcello Malpighi gave with his microscope observational proof of the exchange of blood from arteries to veins in capillaries.

the physician Domenico Cotugno is credited with the discovery of this fluid in 1774.

a class of small non-coding RNAs (abbreviated DDRNAs) unveiled in a study by Fabrizio d'Adda di Fagagna, which play an important role in the activation of DDR, and in turn, as previously discovered by F. Fagagna, in the proliferation's inhibition typical of cellular aging.[277] [278] [279] [280]

Bartolomeo Eustachi extended the knowledge of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the tube that bears his name. He is the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus and the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea.

Gabriele Falloppio studied the reproductive organs in both sexes, and described the tube, which leads from the ovary to the uterus and now bears his name. He was the first to describe a condom (in his writings, a linen sheath wrapped around the penis), and he advocated the use of such sheaths to prevent syphilis.

artificial synthesis (contribution in discovery): the Italian Roberto Crea was part of a team of ten Genentech scientists publishing in 1979 a research that described the solution for synthetic insulin,[289] obtained through genes (coding the protein insulin A and B) that were inserted in Escherichia coli bacteria.[290] This technique made possible the mass production of insulin without relying on extraction from animals sources.

medical procedure invented by Dr Giorgio Fischer in 1974.

being activated in a subject following either his own actions or the ones of another observed actor. These kinds of neurons were discovered by a team of Italian scientists led by Giacomo Rizzolatti.[292] [293] [294] [295]

discovered by Vittorio Erspamer.[298] [299]

with his book on occupational diseases, De Morbis Artificum Diatriba (Diseases of Workers), Bernardino Ramazzini played a substantial role in the birth and development of Occupational medicine, outlining the health hazards of chemicals, dust, metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations.[305]

a surgery technique developed by Tomaso Vercellotti.[306]

doctor Camillo Ricordi -director of Diabetes Research Center (DRI), and Cell Transplant Center of University of Miami- became one of highest authorities in the cure of diabetes disease; he developed the first device able to isolate large quantities of insulin-producing cells from the human pancreas and to have successfully conducted the first series of pancreatic islets transplants capable of treating diabetes. His procedures have been used worldwide.

discovered by Giacinto Cestoni and Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo (in 1687) and identified as the disease-causing agent of scabies. Bonomo also developed the cure: bathing in antiseptic.[314] Parasitology had other fundamental advancements thanks to the research of Francesco Redi, pioneering the subsequent invalidation of spontaneous generation.[315]

an infectious disease discovered by Carlo Urbani; having been infected, he didn't live long enough to see how effective his early detection and intervention was in buying time and saving lives.[316]

discovered and synthesized by Italian chemist and pharmacologist Vittorio Erspamer.[317] [318]

the first ex-vivo stem cell gene therapy to treat patients with a very rare disease called ADA-SCID. The treatment was developed at San Raffaele Telethon Institute for Gene Therapy (SR-Tiget), in Milan. Strimvelis has been approved in Europe for the treatment of human patients.

a protein discovered in 1996 by Italian scientists Silvia Bione, researcher at the time at the Institute of Genetics, Biochemistry and Evolution-CNR of Pavia.[325]

a new method for making vaccines using the pathogen's sequenced genome, pioneered by R. Rappuoli[329] and the J. Craig Venter Institute.[330] Rappuoli has continued researching for even more advanced techniques.[331]

an experimental Ebola virus vaccine developed by Swiss-Italian biotechnology company Okairos under the leadership of Dr Riccardo Cortese, in collaboration with American Nih. Okairos was later incorporated into GlaxoSmithKline.[334] [335] [336]

Trota De Ruggiero (or Trocta) was a medical practitioner, probably a regular physician and university Professor who lived in the early 12th century in Salerno, near Naples. It seems she was daughter of one of the private Professors of the Schola Medica Salernitana, following her father's steps as a physician and teacher of medicine, and whose progeny continued this tradition as well. It is uncertain whether she was the first woman of the Medieval age to become a graduated physician in the Western World, but it is well known from various sources that at least 24 women practiced surgery in Neapolitan Area during Middle Ages. Trota left a collection of writings about the cure of women illnesses in a codex named after her, Trotula. It consists of three manuscripts, of which only the book called De curis mulierum (lit. "On Treatments for Women") is attributed to her, while the other two are works of different authors. The fact she wrote such an organic collection of remedies and cures is one of the evidences suggesting she was a regular graduate and not a simple practitioner. The Schola Medica Salernitana is considered "the oldest medical school of modern civilization" and "forerunner of modern University Medical Schools".[337]

Napoleone Ferrara isolated and cloned the 'vascular endothelial growth factor' in 1989, while working at Genentech.[338] [339] [340] He is credited with developing a whole new class of anti-VEGF drugs for cancer treatment. He had a leading role in the development of ranibizumab, a drug intended for macular degeneration.[341]

Law, philosophy and humanities

arising from the high probability of existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and yet absence of alien contacts (given the great number of stars and planets of our galaxy and billions of years of time for hypothetical civilizations to develop space travel). Herbert York wrote in 1984 that Fermi "followed up with a series of calculations on the probability of earthlike planets, the probability of life given an earth, the probability of humans given life, the likely rise and duration of high technology, and so on. He concluded on the basis of such calculations that we ought to have been visited long ago and many times over".[352]

illiberal political movement characterized as a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism, created by politician and then dictator Benito Mussolini.

an artistic and social movement born in Italy in the early 20th century, that glorified modernity, emphasized speed, technology, youth, impetuosity, and iconic objects of modernity and speed such as internal combustion engines, the car and the airplane as a form of art, an ideal of beauty and trendy absolute ambition for manly boldness. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti was the most prominent figure of the movement.

a broad concept present in different cultures, derives its term from the Latin "humanitas", developed during Roman times (see Aulus Gellius).[356]

term denoting the political philosophy of Machiavelli, especially regarding his most famous work, Il Principe, or The Prince. The book advocated realpolitik and a consequentialist approach to political action, recommending rulers to be ready to act in deceitful ways, such as resorting to fraud, treachery and elimination of political opponents, and to use fear as a means of controlling subjects, in order to retain a ruler's power and security in the state.[357] [358]

a cultural movement of rebirth in the study of classical antiquity, originating in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe (around 1300–1500). Humanists perceived themselves as a different kind of men opposed to those who lived in medieval age and who had another vision of the world, science and literature, rougher and incomplete if compared to the humanistic rediscovery of ancient classics, new perception of nature of things, and a new way of conceiving arts and beauty.[359]

together with the Napoleonic Law,[360] [361] represents the foundation for the Civil Law, now adopted by 150 countries. Ancient Roman Law influenced to some extent the following medieval Common Law.[362]

in ancient Roman legal system, indicates the sum of powers, rights and privileges, of a person on a thing. The seminal distinction between laws of property and obligation has characterized all Western Civilization.[368] Historically, Democritus justified private property because it was efficient. Aristotle added the argument of human nature. Etruscans and Romans perceived private property as the bond of the family with the ancestors and gods.[369]

the runic alphabet was based on Old Italic script.

type of poetry originating in Italy and highly developed by Francesco Petrarca.[370]

Math and physical sciences

See main article: Science and technology in Italy.

Theories, Methods and Models

a body having constant (k=0 v k>0) velocity, will retain its vector unless a force (f>0) acts upon it. Defined by Galileo for horizontal motion.[383]

correctly described for falling bodies from height h using an inclined plane by Galilei in d (distance) = k (constant)*t 2 (or d ∝ t 2), v (velocity) ∝ t, v ∝ h1/2, with the specific mass of the bodies being irrelevant.[384] Previously, William Heytesbury described the earliest mathematical relationship of motion with constant acceleration; with Nicole Oresme and Giovanni di Casali providing graphical demonstration of Heytesbury's statement.[385]

Galileo proposed this principle and illustrated a mechanical clock using the pendulum,[386] [387] with C. Huygens formulating the isochronism properly[388] and credited as inventor of the pendulum clock. Controversy sparkled between Vincenzo Viviani and Huygens about the paternity of the invention.[389]

being formed between 1891 and 1912, especially thanks to Corrado Segre, the school grouped several brilliant students and academics.[390] C. Segre works focused mainly on algebraic geometry,[391] being known for Segre classification, Segre cubic, Segre embedding, Segre surface, Zeuthen–Segre invariant (first discovered by Zeuthen). Other notable exponents of this school have been F. Enriques, F. Severi, G. Castelnuovo and G. Veronese; to these shall not be omitted the Polish mathematician O. Zariski. The school was composed by mathematicians interested in converging topics, who gave pivotal contributions to the development of the algebraic-geometric field particularly in the classification of algebraic surfaces, proceeding from the previous works of Alexander von Brill, M. Noether and Luigi Cremona.[392]

the discipline of ballistics was initially studied and developed by Italian mathematician Niccolo Tartaglia[398]

a practical method developed by Paolo Ruffini allowing the factorization of polynomials (without degree limitation) as products of binomials, provided they meet particular conditions defined by the Ruffini's theorem.[399]

Evangelista Torricelli's work in geometry[400] and Cavalieri's principle, using the method of indivisibles and infinitesimals, paved the way for integral calculus[401] (e.g. Bonaventura Cavalieri solved \textstyle \int_^ \displaystyle x^n), which was later predominantly developed by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. This method allowed the two Italian mathematicians to obtain simply and rapidly the area and volume of several geometric figures, including solids of revolution.[402] Torricelli expanded Cavalieri's method to include curved indivisibles: the improvement consisted in the confrontation between two planar figures broken down using, respectively, rectilinear indivisibles for one and curved indivisibles (i.e. curves of infinitesimal thickness) for the other. If each curved indivisible has the same extension of the associated rectilinear indivisible then the areas of the two figures are equal.[403] More dramatically, studying the curve describing distance as a function of time, Torricelli understood the concept of instant velocity as the tangent of a point on the curve forming an angle with the x axis.[404] He intuited derivatives and, implicitly, the inverse character of integration and derivation.[405] The fundamental theorem of calculus was explicitly enunciated by Isaac Barrow (thus called T.-Barrow theorem). Barrow himself mentioned Galileo, Cavalieri, and Torricelli. Eventually, the theorem received formal demonstration by Isaac Newton.

E.Torricelli researched the apparently contradicting properties (at least for his time) of a solid of revolution with finite volume (calculated by Torricelli to be π/a, with a value of abscissa) and yet infinite surface, obtained when the curve y=1/x for x=1 v x>1 is rotated in 3-space about the x-axis.[406] In recognition for his works on infinitesimal geometry he was referred to as 'the highest geometer', in the century when Descartes, Cavalieri, Fermat and Huygens lived too.[407] He calculated the coordinates of the center of gravity of geometric figures through the quotient of two definite integrals, developing a "universal theorem" nowadays still considered the most general possible.[408] He introduced the curved indivisibles, that is the integration by substitution and the use of curvilinear coordinates, and, along with Fermat, worked towards the generalization of the Cavalieri's quadrature formula (solving the case of higher hyperbolae). Among other things, Torricelli calculated the volume of solids formed by any lateral surface and limited by two plane surfaces (e.g.: the volume of barrels). He also solved the Torricelli–Fermat point, worked with Roberval on the cycloid (its quadrature, center of gravity, and rotational solid), and researched the ballistic trajectories.

was conceived and graphically rectified by Torricelli, up to its center, to which the curve tends after infinite revolutions. Torricelli substituted the "potential infinite and infinitesimal" of the Greeks with the "actual infinite and infinitesimal".

discovered by Italian physicist Ettore Majorana,[409] and named after Italian-American Ugo Fano, who produced a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon.[410] [411] U. Fano is also known for Feshbach–Fano partitioning, Fano factor, Fano noise, Lu–Fano plot,[412] Fano effect, Fano–Lichten mechanism,[413] Beutler-Fano profile[414] and Fano's theorem.[415] [416]

a result defining the conditions under which is possible to calculate a double integral by using iterated integral, described by Guido Fubini. He is also known for developing the Fubini-Study metrics in 1904,[417] with Eduard Study describing the same just one year later, in 1905.[418] Fubini opened new paths in the areas of analysis, geometry and mathematical physics.[419]

Vito Volterra is considered founder of this branch of mathematics.[420] He developed a general theory of functionals, i.e. functions of functions,[421] not to be confused with function composition, and his works are credited with having a generous influence on modern calculus (e.g. harmonic integrals). Volterra also applied his analytics to the theories of elasticity, distortion and electromagnetism.[422] He independently co-developed the predator-prey model.[423]

initiated in Europe by Italian mathematicians, statistics and probability met general and systematic theorization with Pascal and Fermat.[425] Cardano, for instance, enunciated what is possibly the first definition of classical probability.[426] Permutation and combination had already been used by Arab mathematicians.

extension of vector calculus to tensor fields, allowing expression of physics equations in a form that is independent of the choice of coordinates on a manifold, such as space-time. It was developed by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita.[427] Later, it constituted a critical tool used by Albert Einstein to develop his theory of relativity.[428] [429]

Lagrange's theorem of groups (a subgroup's order must always divide the order of the group exactly) represents one of the earliest steps in the theory of groups. Lagrange is considered a founder of group theory, along with Niels Henrik Abel and Évariste Galois.

fluid pressure is reduced when a fluid flows in a more constricted section of a pipe. Discovered by the Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi.[433]

equal volumes of all (ideal) gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of particles (atoms or molecules).[434]

Q (quantity of charge) = C (capacitance) * V (tension or voltage), discovered by Alessandro Volta[435] [436] (its proper formulation is: Q ∝ V).

although mainly known for his artistic endeavors, Leonardo da Vinci was paleontology's founding father[444] (also see Science of Leonardo da Vinci, about Leonardo's visionary research).

a unitary matrix containing information about the strength of the flavour-changing weak interaction. The first version of the matrix was developed in 1963 by Nicola Cabibbo -renowned physicist and later president of the Pontifical Academy of Science- and was subsequently completed by the Japanese Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa.[446] Nobel Prize was awarded to the latter two omitting the former.[447] Cabibbo's work helped in understanding the violation of an almost exact symmetry of charge and parity between particles and the corresponding antiparticles, called Cp violation. It is hypothesized matter and anti-matter to be present in equal quantities at the beginning of the universe.[448] The violation could help explain why matter is now far more abundant than antimatter.[449] [450]

the Italian theoretical physicist and writer Carlo Rovelli is one of the founders of this quantum theory of gravity,[451] together with Lee Smolin and Abhay Ashtekar. The theory is aimed at merging the general relativity with quantum mechanics. Furthermore, C. Rovelli and French mathematician Alain Connes put forward the thermal time hypothesis in order to solve the problem of time.[452]

interpretation of the state of a quantum system as the relation between the observer and the system, introduced by C. Rovelli.[453]

often used in economy and statistics to define, among the units of a community, the global measure of the inequality in income's distribution.[455] [456]

a statistical technique introduced by Serbian-Italian, Croatian and European scientist[457] Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich.[458] His physical theories would influence Hamilton.[459]

Particles

Astronomy

father Giuseppe Piazzi was the first to discover an asteroid he called Ceres, the major object in the Asteroid belt of the Solar system, and considered a dwarf planet by modern astronomic terminology. He cataloged 7,646 stars, demonstrating that most stars are in relative motion to the Sun. He also discovered the proper motion of the double star 61 Cygni. The asteroid 1000 Piazzia and a Moon's crater have been christened with his name.[470]

Military innovations

Strategies, methods and operations

founded around 1526 by Bartolomeo Beretta, the Fabbrica d’Armi Pietro Beretta is the world's oldest manufacturing company[480] and can be considered the oldest industry; during the Venetian-Turkish war (1570–73) Beretta produced 300 weapons per-day.[481] [482] According to Marco Morin and Robert Held, well-known experts in military history, in the 16th century the Brescian valley became "an envied supplier of weapons on a global scale, which for the unsurpassed quality and strength of its products and above all of its gun barrels beat the great metallurgical centers of the time like Suhl, Augsburg and Nuremberg, in Germany": weapons were purchased by different Italian States, France and England. In 1975, Beretta introduced the 9mm Model 92, which met worldwide diffusion as the self loading pistol most adopted by armies and law enforcement.

Troops

the first modern frogmen were the World War II Italian commando frogmen.

modern special forces intended for mountain warfare, created in 1872. The first 15 Alpini companies were officially established by Kingdom of Italy on 15 October.[483] The Italian example was soon followed by other countries having mountainous areas and thus France formed the Chasseurs des Alpes, in Germany the Alpenkorps were born, in Austro-Hungarian Empire the Landwehr and the Tyrolean hunters (Kaiserjäger); similar troops appeared in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Switzerland and Spain.[484] During WWI the Alps have been the major theater of mountain warfare (also called Alpine warfare).

Music

See main article: Music of Italy.

Notation and performance

Contemporary Styles

a style of music popular in the late 1990s.

Food and Cuisine

See main article: Italian cuisine.

Italian dish from Rome.

a type of pasta in the form of a case with meat or cheese filling.https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ravioli

ring shaped pasta that originates from Emilia-Romagna.

a dry pasta that has a narrow tube shape.

the Renaissance alchemist Cosimo Ruggieri created the first gelato flavor at the Medici's court, in Florence: the 'fior di latte'. The architect Bernardo Buontalenti invented the 'egg cream' gelato.[498] In 1903 Italo Marchioni patended a machine for producing the gelato cone.

traditional Italian dessert featuring mascarpone cheese, chocolate shavings, and espresso.

a coffee-brewing method.

southern Italian cheese made from Italian buffalo's milk by the pasta filata method.

tomato sauce made with tomatoes, garlic, herbs and onions.

Italian white bread made from wheat flour, water, salt, yeast, and olive oil.

long and thin sticks of crisp of dry baked bread that was invented in Italy.

Northern Italian rice dish.

broccoli resulted from breeding of landrace Brassica crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the sixth century BCE. Broccoli has its origins in primitive cultivars grown in the Roman Empire and was most likely improved via artificial selection in the southern Italian Peninsula or in Sicily.

a technique in the manufacture of a family of Italian cheeses.

Sport

See main article: Sport in Italy.

in the game of Chess, an opening move created in Italy around the 16th century and described for the first time in a Chess theory book of 1594 by Chess Master Giulio Cesare Polerio.

initially used to indicate speed competitions, usually with horses, it later embraced many other peculiarities, evolving into a group of typical manifestations dating back to various Italian medieval cities.[502]

Geography

The following is an extract of the most noteworthy geographical discoveries, partially or totally Italian:

See also

External links

Notes and References

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  9. Web site: List of 5 Greatest Feats of Roman Engineering - History Lists. historylists.org. 2019-10-28.
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  155. Web site: Was Enrico Fermi Really the "Father of the Nuclear Age"?. Roeback. Tacuma. Smithsonian. 2019-10-27.
  156. Web site: Nuclear fission - Energy Education. energyeducation.ca. 2019-10-27.
  157. http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/429776/opera/27830/Venetian-opera#ref395600
  158. Web site: Paddle Boat. Leonardo da Vinci Exhibit: the Models. Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago). 17 September 2015. 2006. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20151113072925/http://www.msichicago.org/scrapbook/scrapbook_exhibits/leonardo/models/01_model.html. 13 November 2015.
  159. Book: Homans. Isaac Smith. Dana. William B.. Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review. https://books.google.com/books?id=iFxJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA194. 23 March 2014. 46. 1862. F. Hunt. 194. Recent Italian inventions.
  160. Web site: Giovani Caselli – Pantelegraph (and fax) inventor. Fax Authority. 2019-10-27.
  161. Web site: The History of pasta. www.internationalpasta.org. 2019-12-20.
  162. Web site: PASTA ALIMENTARE in "Enciclopedia Italiana". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-20.
  163. Book: Cosmo, Serena. The Ultimate Pasta and Noodle Cookbook. 2017-10-24. Simon and Schuster. 978-1-60433-733-4. en.
  164. https://www.dececco.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/32054_LENTA-ESSICCAZIONE-PER-UNA-PASTA-DI-QUALITA-SUPERIORE-1.pdf "''Translation from source: in 1889, the Founder of De Cecco was one of the first inventors of pasta drying systems hygienically acceptable and independent from the climatic conditions of the production area."
  165. Web site: Book Excerptise: A History of Beer and Brewing by Ian Spencer Hornsey. www.cse.iitk.ac.in. 2019-11-18.
  166. Web site: Lazzaro Spallanzani Italian physiologist. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-11-18.
  167. https://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/books/20060709leonardo-perspectograph.pdf
  168. Book: Alberti, Leon Battista. Della Pittura. 1435.
  169. Web site: Piano musical instrument. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019-11-09.
  170. The War Office (UK): Textbook of Small Arms (1929), page 86. H.M. Stationery Office (UK), 1929
  171. Web site: PISTOLA in "Enciclopedia Italiana". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-10-22.
  172. Web site: Il simbolo del Far West. daily.wired.it. it. 2019-12-19.
  173. Web site: 10 invenzioni "italiane" attribuite ad altri - Focus.it. www.focus.it. 2019-12-19.
  174. Book: Woodruff, R. R.. Blue Blood Revenge. 2017-07-02. Page Publishing Inc. 978-1-64027-583-6. en.
  175. Book: Publications, Adda247. Competition Power May 2019 Monthly eBook. Adda247 Publications. en. English.
  176. Book: Hughes, Holly. Frommer's 500 Places for Food and Wine Lovers. 23 March 2014. 8 April 2009. John Wiley & Sons. 978-0-470-48064-9. 36.
  177. Book: The Science Book. 2014-08-01. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 9780241185100. en.
  178. Web site: Breve storia del cambio della bici. Bikeitalia.it. it-IT. 2019-12-19. Translation The real revolution comes with the Campagnolo Gran Sport gearbox, which became a milestone in technical evolution. [...] Also for the first time the front derailleur appeared.
  179. Web site: PBS: Tesla - Master of Lightning: Who Invented Radio?. www.pbs.org. 2019-11-02. The Marconi Company was suing the United States Government for use of its patents [...]. The action [was avoided] by restoring the priority of Tesla's patent over Marconi..
  180. Web site: radiogoniometro in "Dizionario delle Scienze Fisiche". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-22.
  181. Web site: Bellini-Tosi MF/DF. www.airwaysmuseum.com. 2019-12-22. in 1906 [...] Dr Ettore Bellini and Captain Tosi, produced a direction-finding system which [...] in principle remained in use for over 70 years..
  182. Web site: radiogoniometro nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-22. Translation [Radiogoniometer] is the oldest and one of the most important instruments for radio-assisted navigation. [...]. Conceived by A. Artom (1901), also known by the name of r. Bellini-Tosi (1908)..
  183. Book: l'Umbria, Deputazione di storia patria per. Bollettino della Deputazione di storia patria per l'Umbria. 1942. Deputazione di storia patria per lU̓mbria.. it.
  184. Web site: PIONIERI ITALIANI DELLA RADIOTECNICA. www.arifidenza.it. Italian pioneers of radio technology. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20191222143244/http://www.arifidenza.it/LaSezione/DiplomaPionieriItaliani2019/DIPLOMA_PROFILI.pdf. 2019-12-22.
  185. Bellini. E.. Tosi. A.. 1907-12-01. A Directive System of Wireless Telegraphy. Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 21. 1. 305–328. 10.1088/1478-7814/21/1/321. In order to be able to transmit and receive to or from any direction whatsoever, without having to turn the aerial, or having recourse to a large number of aerials in fixed positions, the aerials were built up of two equal closed oscillatory circuits, vertically placed and mutually perpendicular. This aerial system is connected up to special instruments for transmission and reception which the authors have called "Radiogoniometers." [...]. On this [original] method, by merely rotating a small coil of wire on the table, a fixed aerial directive system of any size was made to do what could otherwise only be done by turning the whole system of aerial wires in azimuth. The essence of the system was the piece of apparatus styled the radiogoniometer, which, by causing appropriate component radiation from two fixed wire triangles set at right angles, brought about a resultant radiation in any direction desired [...] so that if it can be used, as stated by the Authors, accurately to about one degree of arc, the radiogoniometer is the practical equivalent of 360 bent antennae.. 1907PPSL...21..305B.
  186. Web site: Libreria Antiquaria Gonnelli - Casa d'Aste - Gonnelli Casa d'Aste. Multimedia. THETIS Srl Grafica-. Libreria Antiquaria Gonnelli - Casa d'Aste - Gonnelli Casa d'Aste. 2019-12-22. Artom (1867-1927) was a scientist, inventor of the directional radio antenna and radiogoniometer.
  187. Web site: 2015-06-10. Brev. Lefaucheux 1858. https://web.archive.org/web/20150610215822/http://www.storiainsoffitta.it/ALFABETICO/L/Lefaucheux%201858%20-%20Arma%20da%20Fuoco%20Belgio/. dead. 2015-06-10. 2021-02-09.
  188. Web site: Mura. Farwest it Sergio. Francesco Antonio Broccu : www.farwest.it. 2021-02-09. it.
  189. Web site: Il simbolo del Far West. 2021-02-09. daily.wired.it. it.
  190. http://edicola.unionesarda.it/Articolo.aspx?Data=20101203&Categ=0&Voce=1&IdArticolo=2528176 "La pistola di Colt? La inventò prima Broccu"
  191. Web site: Treccani 90° - 1925/2015, 90 anni di cultura Italiana - 1990telepass. Treccani. www.treccani.it. it. 2019-12-16. Translation the first RFID system designed for civil use [...] is due to inventor of Italian origins Mario W. Cardullo..
  192. Web site: NFCNEARFIELDCOMMUNICATION.ORG - The Invention of RFID and the Contributions of CHARLES WALTON. www.nfcnearfieldcommunication.org. 2019-12-16. In 1973 Mario Cardullo was the first person to patent a RFID tag with the ability to have specific information written on it that was actually rewritable..
  193. Web site: Pago MA CON LA SIM - Il Sole 24 ORE. st.ilsole24ore.com. 2019-12-16. Translation Mario Cardullo, Author of the first patent related to RFID (1973), which is the base of contact-less mobile payments.
  194. Web site: Roman Education. History Learning Site. 2019-11-08.
  195. Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996
  196. Michael Chiappetta, "Historiography and Roman Education," History of Education Journal 4, no. 4 (1953): 149-156.
  197. Book: Bergin. Thomas Goddard. Speake. Jennifer. Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. 23 March 2014. 1 January 2009. Facts on File, Incorporated. 978-1-4381-1026-4. 12.
  198. Web site: seismograph Definition & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019-10-31.
  199. Borgstrom. S.. Lucia. M. De. Nave. R.. 1999-11-25. Luigi Palmieri: first scientific bases for geophysical surveillance in Mt. Vesuvius area. Annals of Geophysics. 42. 3. 10.4401/ag-3741 . free.
  200. Web site: senato. treccani.it.
  201. Book: Medicine and the Reign of Technology. Reiser. Stanley J.. Reiser. Stanley Joel. 1981-02-27. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-28223-9. en.
  202. Web site: Types and History of Castles - Star Forts. www.castlesandmanorhouses.com. 2019-11-12.
  203. Web site: Bastioned trace warfare. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-11-12.
  204. L'Enciclopedia - La biblioteca di Repubblica, Volume 8 (Felid-Ganz), p. 446
  205. Web site: Castello di Copertino. Polo Museale della Puglia. it. 2019-11-12.
  206. Web site: The stock market: from the 'Ter Buerse' inn to Wall Street — Museum of the National Bank of Belgium.
  207. Web site: Borsa. 2012-08-05. La Repubblica. 2019-11-13.
  208. Web site: borsa nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-13.
  209. Web site: lemma Borsa. www.educational.rai.it. 2019-11-13.
  210. De Clercq G. (e.a.), Ter Beurze. Geschiedenis van de aandelenhandel in België, 1300-1990, 1993, p. 15-32.
  211. Web site: About Pre-Paid Phone Cards. money4u.tripod.com. 2019-12-11.
  212. Web site: La carta telefonica prepagata, un'invenzione italiana.. targetpointsrl. 2015-01-20. Target Point. it-IT. 2019-12-11.
  213. Web site: Phone Card Industry History. www.bbgusa.com. 2019-12-11.
  214. Web site: tim-inventa-la-carta-sim-prepagata. www.italiaoggi.it. By complying with the type already used in fixed telephony, Tim will in fact launch a product capable of eliminating the constraints of fixed costs. This will be possible thanks to ´Ready to go ', the first prepaid sim card..
  215. Web site: Expo 2015 come opportunità di comunicazione Notiziario Tecnico TIM. Telecom Italia Corporate. it-IT. 2019-12-12.
  216. Web site: Le 14 invenzioni italiane che ci hanno cambiato la vita (o lo faranno). 2015-05-19. Corriere della Sera. it. 2019-12-12.
  217. Web site: Marzi, Giovanni Battista nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-19.
  218. Book: Gelakoska, Veronica. Pig 'N Whistle. 2010-11-01. Arcadia Publishing. 978-1-4396-4043-2. en.
  219. Web site: E Philo inventò la TV. Mameli. Andrea. 2007. LINGUAGGIO MACCHINA. Translation On 7 August 1922 a patent is registered in Los Angeles and signed Augusto Bissiri. The idea is to improve the Nipkow disk by obtaining a series of lines of light then converted into light signals and recreated in an electromechanical vision system..
  220. US. 1546193. 1925-07-14. Live-picture production. Bissiri. Augusto.
  221. US. 1713213. 1929-05-14. Transmission of pictures. General Electric Company. Bissiri. Augusto., [previous solutions required a] variable illumination and visibility of the screen on which the picture is reproduced. In accordance with my invention, these difficulties are largely avoided or altogether obviated by the provision of a continuously illuminated screen which is arranged to have its contour and shading varied in accordance with the shading of the picture.
  222. Web site: Invenzioni. 2012-07-30. Augusto Bissiri. it-IT. 2019-11-29.
  223. Book: Buttler, Tony. Jet Prototypes of World War II: Gloster, Heinkel, and Caproni Campini's wartime jet programmes. 2019-09-19. Bloomsbury Publishing. 978-1-4728-3597-0. en. Ingegnere Secondo Campini, inventor of the thermojet [...] In 1931 he and his two brothers moved to Milan and formed the Veivoli e Natanti a reazione.
  224. Book: LIFE. 1944-11-27. Time Inc. en. First Jet Airplane on public record was Caproni-Campini plane of Italian air force.
  225. Energy Self Sufficient Aircrafts [sic] Can Become Reality through New Propulsion Design Approaches (2015-01-2484 Technical Paper)- SAE Mobilus. saemobilus.sae.org. en. 10.4271/2015-01-2484. 2020-01-04. Via researchgate.net CASPER architecture is inspired by Caproni-Campini CC2 indirect jet, with ducted fan and post-combustor.
  226. Web site: Thermojet: An Old Idea Can Define a Novel Family of Jets (2013-01-2205 Technical Paper)- SAE Mobilus. saemobilus.sae.org. en. 2020-01-04.
  227. Web site: What toilets and sewers tell us about ancient Roman sanitation. phys.org. 2019-11-08.
  228. Web site: Quell' antica latrina romana che sembra una sala da ballo - la Repubblica.it. Archivio - la Repubblica.it. 20 March 1999 . it. 2019-11-08.
  229. Web site: water-closet in Vocabolario - Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-08.
  230. Web site: Tarot playing card. 2021-07-07. Encyclopedia Britannica. en.
  231. Book: Dummett, Michael. The Game of Tarot. 81. London. Duckworth.
  232. Web site: Subacquee, armi. Caretti. Luigi. 1936. www.treccani.it. Translation The history of the torpedo is associated with that of its inventors, the Italian G. B. Luppis, [...] and the engineer R. Whitehead..
  233. Web site: Federico Faggin Inventions, Patents and Patent Applications - Justia Patents Search. patents.justia.com. 2019-11-02.
  234. Web site: Così inventai il touchscreen, ma dissi no all'offerta di Steve Jobs. Vercesi. Pier Luigi. 2019-04-28. Corriere della Sera. it. 2019-11-02.
  235. "Triumphal arch." Encyclopædia Britannica (2010)
  236. Nielsen . Clare Iannota . Rampazetto, Francesco . Oxford Music Online . 2001 . 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22851 .
  237. Web site: Who Invented The Typewriter?. WorldAtlas. 19 September 2019. 2019-10-24.
  238. Web site: Scrittura Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti. it-IT. 2019-10-28.
  239. Web site: macchine dattilografiche. www.treccani.it.
  240. Web site: Le 14 invenzioni italiane che ci hanno cambiato la vita (o lo faranno). 2015-05-19. Corriere della Sera. it. 2019-12-11.
  241. Web site: La Olivetti ET 101 e le macchine per scrivere elettroniche. 2012-06-18. 2019-12-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20120618132616/http://www.storiaolivetti.it/percorso.asp?idPercorso=625. 18 June 2012.
  242. Web site: Olivetti ET 101, 1978 - Museo Tecnologicamente. www.museotecnologicamente.it. 2019-12-11. Translation The ET 101 was the first electronic typewriter in the world, a record to share with the QYX, of the Exxon Corporation, which never entered production.
  243. Web site: LANCIA, Vincenzo in "Dizionario Biografico". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-27.
  244. Web site: 1922 Lancia Lambda 1st Series Torpedo. Branch. Jon C.. 2016-05-05. Revivaler. en-US. 2019-11-27.
  245. Motor car. US. 1694546. 1928-12-11. Lancia. Vincenzo.
  246. Book: Votolato, Gregory. Car. 2015-06-15. Reaktion Books. 978-1-78023-459-5. en.
  247. Book: The Motor Car: Past, Present and Future. Genta. Giancarlo. Morello. Lorenzo. Cavallino. Francesco. Filtri. Luigi. 2014-01-06. Springer Science & Business Media. 978-94-007-8552-6. en.
  248. Web site: university Origin and meaning of university by Online Etymology Dictionary. www.etymonline.com. 2019-11-08.
  249. Web site: The University in History: 1088 And All That. iotu.uchicago.edu. 2019-11-08.
  250. Web site: 10-oldest-universities-world. 21 June 2019. www.topuniversities.com.
  251. Web site: L'elenco delle università più antiche del mondo: al primo posto il Marocco. Cirica. Paolo. 2018-05-28. University Equipe. it-IT. 2019-11-08.
  252. Web site: università nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-27.
  253. Web site: Vault architecture. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019-10-29.
  254. Web site: 7 Carnivals Around the World. 2009-02-17. www.mentalfloss.com. en. 2019-11-20.
  255. Web site: Carnival pre-Lent festival. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-11-20.
  256. Web site: CARNEVALE in "Enciclopedia Italiana". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-20.
  257. Web site: Vespa Piaggio: un viaggio nella storia italiana - museoscienza. www.museoscienza.org. 2019-11-12.
  258. Web site: Focus innovazione: 100 grandi idee italiane - Focus.it. www.focus.it. 2020-01-04. Translation To design the scooter (the first in the world to have a load-bearing body) was the engineer from Abruzzo Corradino D'Ascanio..
  259. Web site: History - Vienna Symphonic Library. www.vsl.co.at. 2019-11-05.
  260. Web site: viola da gamba, viol, origin, history, iconography, buy, sell, Jose Vazquez, Orpheon Consort. www.orpheon.org. 2019-11-05.
  261. Web site: viola nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-05.
  262. Web site: History of the Viola – Viola Central. violacentral.com. 2019-11-13.
  263. Web site: Tinazzi . Massimo . Perpetual Electromotive of Giuseppe Zamboni . 1996 . 2008-01-18 .
  264. Giulio Natta, 1903—1979 . C.E.H. Bawn . Nature . 280 . 5724. 707 . 1979 . 10.1038/280707a0. 1979Natur.280..707B . 42699844 . free .
  265. Web site: A Roma si ricorda la figura di Vincenzo Tiberio. www.difesa.it. it-IT. 2019-11-14.
  266. Web site: L'italiano che inventò la penicillina. Treccani, l'Enciclopedia italiana. it-IT. 2019-11-14.
  267. Bucci. Roberto. Gallì. Paola. 2011. Public Health History Corner Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher. Italian Journal of Public Health. en. 8. 4. 10.2427/5688 .
  268. Web site: La penicillina? Una scoperta italiana - Corriere della Sera. www.corriere.it. 2019-11-14.
  269. Web site: Tiberio, l'italiano che scoprì il potere curativo delle muffe 35 anni prima della penicillina di Fleming - La Stampa. 2017-09-20. lastampa.it. it-IT. 2019-11-14.
  270. Web site: Vincenzo Tiberio, ufficiale medico della Regia Marina, primo italiano scopritore degli antibiotici. 2017-04-17. Difesa Online. it. 2019-12-23. Translation Bartolomeo Gosio [...] discovered [...] the first true antibiotic.
  271. Book: Natural Products: Drug Discovery and Therapeutic Medicine. Zhang. Lixin. Demain. Arnold L.. 2007-11-17. Springer Science & Business Media. 978-1-59259-976-9. en.
  272. Web site: Bartolomeo_Gosio_Lo_scienziato_di_Magliano_a_un_passo_dal_Nobel. Aimassi. Giorgio. 2008. researchgate.net.
  273. Podolsky, M. Lawrence (1998) Cures Out of Chaos: How Unexpected Discoveries Led to Breakthroughs in Medicine and Health, Harwood Academic Publishers
  274. Web site: Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. embryo.asu.edu. 2019-12-22. Interested in questions about generation, Spallanzani performed the first artificial insemination of a viviparous animal, a spaniel dog, a feat he recognized as one of his greatest accomplishments..
  275. Ombelet. W.. Van Robays. J.. 2015. Artificial insemination history: hurdles and milestones. Facts, Views & Vision in ObGyn. 7. 2. 137–143 . 4498171. 26175891. More than 100 years later, in 1784, the first artificial insemination in a dog was reported by the scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani (Italian physiologist, 1729-1799). This insemination resulted in the birth of three puppy’s 62 days later (Belonoschkin, 1956; Zorgniotti, 1975). It is believed that Spallanzani was the first to report the effects of cooling on human sperm when he noted, in 1776, that sperm cooled by snow became motionless..
  276. Web site: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1906. NobelPrize.org. 2019-11-05.
  277. Web site: d'Adda di Fagagna. www.igm.cnr.it. 2019-12-16.
  278. Web site: Scoperte da un team di ricercatori italiani molecole contro l'invecchiamento cellulare. 2017-02-27. Il Fatto Quotidiano. it-IT. 2019-12-16. [Fabrizio d'Adda di Fagagna] work described a class of non-coding RNAs entirely new, the Ddrna.
  279. Web site: A novel direct role of non coding RNA in DNA damage response activation. cordis.europa.eu. We have recently identified a completely hitherto undiscovered level of control of DDR activation [...]. We have discovered that short RNA species are detectable at DNA damage sites and are necessary for DDR activation at DNA lesions. [IFOM Fondazione Istituto Firc Di Oncologia Molecolare].
  280. Gioia. Ubaldo. Francia. Sofia. Cabrini. Matteo. Brambillasca. Silvia. Michelini. Flavia. Jones-Weinert. Corey W.. d’Adda di Fagagna. Fabrizio. 2019-04-23. Pharmacological boost of DNA damage response and repair by enhanced biogenesis of DNA damage response RNAs. Scientific Reports. en. 9. 1. 6460. 10.1038/s41598-019-42892-6. 31015566. 6478851 . 2019NatSR...9.6460G.
  281. Spallanzani, Lazaro . 25 . 593.
  282. Kousoulis. Antonis A.. Tsoucalas. Gregory. Armenis. Iakovos. Marineli. Filio. Karamanou. Marianna. Androutsos. George. 2012. From the "hungry acid" to pepsinogen: a journey through time in quest for the stomach's secretion. Annals of Gastroenterology. 25. 2. 119–122 . 3959394. 24713892. Edward Stevens was the first to perform [...] in vitro digestion successfully and proved that the gastric juice itself contained the active principle necessary for the assimilation of food [...] [Lazzaro Spallanzani] postulated that digestion was by an acid and, in 1783, he finally concluded that digestion in vitro as well as in vivo was a chemical process..
  283. Peescott. F.. Spallanzani. 1930. Spallanzani on Spontaneous Generation and Digestion. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. en. 23. 4. 495–510. 10.1177/003591573002300445 . Spallanzani's researches on digestion [...] proved in a decisive manner that digestion is not a simple mechanical process, but one of true solution, occurring mainly in the stomach under the influence of the gastric juice.. free.
  284. Web site: Girolamo Fracastoro Italian physician. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-11-19.
  285. Web site: Golgi apparatus Definition, Function, Location, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019-11-05.
  286. Web site: New York - Robert Gallo receives Leonardo da Vinci Prize. www.esteri.it. 2019-11-05.
  287. Web site: Il Premio Leonardo a Robert Gallo America Oggi. www.americaoggi.info. 2019-11-05.
  288. Web site: Proposed Human Genome Diversity Project Still Plagued By Controversy And Questions. The Scientist Magazine. en. 2019-09-11.
  289. Web site: Cloning Insulin. Genentech. Genentech: Breakthrough science. One moment, one day, one person at a time.. 2019-11-12.
  290. Goeddel. D. V.. Kleid. D. G.. Bolivar. F.. Heyneker. H. L.. Yansura. D. G.. Crea. R.. Hirose. T.. Kraszewski. A.. Itakura. K.. Riggs. A. D.. 1979. Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 76. 1. 106–110. 10.1073/pnas.76.1.106 . 85300. 382885. 1979PNAS...76..106G. free.
  291. Web site: Amico Bignami. www.whonamedit.com. 2019-11-17.
  292. Caggiano. Vittorio. Fogassi. Leonardo. Rizzolatti. Giacomo. Casile. Antonino. Giese. Martin A.. Thier. Peter. 2012-07-17. Mirror neurons encode the subjective value of an observed action. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. en. 109. 29. 11848–11853. 10.1073/pnas.1205553109 . 22753471. 3406819. 2012PNAS..10911848C. free.
  293. Web site: Il valore soggettivo per i neuroni specchio. Le Scienze. it. 2019-12-19.
  294. Web site: Neuroni specchio: scoperta e ruolo nei processi socio-educativi. 2018-05-15. Isfar. it-IT. 2019-12-19.
  295. Web site: Rizzolatti, Giacomo nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-19.
  296. Web site: Immunità e tumori: scoperta una molecola che previene la formazione delle metastasi. 2019-07-25. Le Scienze. it. 2019-12-13. Translation We discovered the gene responsible for MS4A4A 10 years ago in tumor-associated macrophages, but the role of the protein it codified has been clarified [only] recently - explains Massimo Locati, professor of immunology at the University of Milan....
  297. Aloe. Luigi. Chaldakov. George N.. March 2013. The Multiple Life of Nerve Growth Factor: Tribute to Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012). Balkan Medical Journal. 30. 1. 4–7. 10.5152/balkanmedj.2013.003 . 4116029. 25207059.
  298. Erspamer. V.. 2009-03-13. Active Substances in the Posterior Salivary Glands of Octopoda. II. Tyramine and Octopamine (Oxyoctopamine).. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica. en. 4. 3–4. 224–247. 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1948.tb03345.x.
  299. Aonuma . Hitoshi . Kaneda . Mugiho . Hatakeyama . Dai . Watanabe . Takayuki . Lukowiak . Ken . Ito . Etsuro . Weak involvement of octopamine in aversive taste learning in a snail . Neurobiology of Learning and Memory . May 2017 . 141 . 189–198 . 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.010 . 28450080 . 207263628 .
  300. Web site: Dulbecco, Renato in "Enciclopedia dei ragazzi". www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-11-29.
  301. Web site: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1975. NobelPrize.org. en-US. 2019-11-29.
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  333. Robbins. John B.. Schneerson. Rachel. Kubler-Kielb. Joanna. Keith. Jerry M.. Trollfors. Birger. Vinogradov. Evgeny. Shiloach. Joseph. 2014-03-04. Toward a new vaccine for pertussis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111. 9. 3213–3216. 10.1073/pnas.1324149111 . 3948267. 24556987. it follows that improvement of the current pertussis vaccine can begin with two steps: (i) removal of the nonessential vaccine components; and (ii) improving the essential component PTx by using a nondenatured, genetically detoxified mutant, one of which has been shown to be a better immunogen. 2014PNAS..111.3213R. free.
  334. Web site: Rapid and durable protection against Ebola virus with new vaccine regimens. ScienceDaily. en. 2019-12-01. Okairos, a Swiss-Italian biotechnology company now part of GlaxoSmithKline.
  335. Web site: Ebola, l'Oms sceglie un vaccino italiano per contrastare il virus. 2014-10-03. Il Fatto Quotidiano. it-IT. 2019-12-01. Translation The vaccine with which the World Health Organization has decided to fight the Ebola epidemic that hit Africa [...] will be Italian. [The virus] could be counteracted by the product studied by the Italian company Okairos. Much of the merit of the discovery goes to the founder of the pharmaceutical company, Riccardo Cortese [...].
  336. Web site: Ebola, vaccino prodotto in Italia fa sperare. Il creatore: "Agisce sulle cellule killer". 2014-09-07. Il Fatto Quotidiano. it-IT. 2019-12-01. Translation For five years Professor Riccardo Cortese [...] was developing this vaccine which - he explains to IlFattoQuotidiano.it - "has an approach different from the others because, in addition to developing antibodies against the infectious agent, it acts on the "killer cells" [...] The Italian vaccine is different by nature from Zmapp [...].
  337. de Divitiis . Enrico . Cappabianca . Paolo . de Divitiis . Oreste . The "Schola Medica Salernitana": The Forerunner of the Modern University Medical Schools . Neurosurgery . October 2004 . 55 . 4 . 722–745 . 10.1227/01.neu.0000139458.36781.31 . 15458581 .
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  348. Web site: Giordano Bruno: On the Infinite Universe and Worlds (Third Dialogue). 2012-04-27. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20120427091405/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/brunoiuw3.htm. 27 April 2012. 2019-11-20. There are then innumerable suns, and an infinite number of earths revolve around those suns, just as the seven we can observe revolve around this sun which is close to us. [...] we discern only the largest suns, immense bodies. But we do not discern the earths because, being much smaller, they are invisible to us [...] We see that no part of the earth shineth by her own brightness, but that some parts shine by reflection from elsewhere, as for example her watery region and her vaporous atmosphere which receive heat and light from the sun and can transfer both to the surrounding regions..
  349. Valentinuzzi. M. E.. 2019. Giordano Bruno: Expander of the Copernican Universe. IEEE Pulse. 10. 5. 23–27. 10.1109/MPULS.2019.2937244. 208842400 . free.
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  360. Andrew Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014), p. xxxiii.

    Quote: "The ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geographically extended by Napoleon. To them he added a rational and efficient local administration, an end to rural banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire"

  361. Web site: Bonaparte Family French history. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-12-01. Bonaparte Family, Italian Buonaparte [...]. The French form Bonaparte was not commonly used, even by Napoleon, until [...] 1796..
  362. Web site: The Contribution of Roman Law to Modern Legal Systems. Feature. 25 May 2019. 2019-05-25. European Conservative. 2019-10-23.
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  458. "Least Absolute Deviation Regression". The Concise Encyclopedia of Statistics. Springer. 2008. pp. 299–302. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-32833-1_225. .
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  460. Corson. D. R.. MacKenzie. K. R.. Segrè. E.. 1940-10-15. Artificially Radioactive Element 85. Physical Review. 58. 8. 672–678. 10.1103/PhysRev.58.672. 1940PhRv...58..672C.
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  481. Web site: LA SANTABARBARA D' ITALIA - la Repubblica.it. DE' MARINIS. FABRIZIO. 1987. Archivio - la Repubblica.it. it. 2019-12-09. Translation (not lit.) [Beretta] is considered the oldest industry in the world, given that it is the oldest of all the companies recognized by Les Hènokiens, the French association that groups [...] [companies with] proven continuity of family management. Translation from historical source, 1562 Through the Val Trompia runs the river Mella, as it has been said, which moves machinery and contrivances, and the valley has very few cultivated lands [...]. And there are eight ovens for iron distinctly placed, and around forty forges where it is done steel and iron of every sort, who one thing, who another. Rifles of every kind are made, muskets with all the supplies (all the parts that make a complete weapon), harquebuses, crossbows and bombards, bales of artillery, carabines, weapons of all kinds for use on the ground, on horses and ships, other fire weapons and various battle instruments. Every year about twenty-five-thousand rifles are taken from this valley, and exported by merchants to foreign states. This valley is abundant in iron, because all these mountains are full of it [...], so much that they furnish XV ovens..
  482. Web site: Un posto d'onore tra Les Hénokiens il club delle aziende bicentenarie - Corriere.it. www.corriere.it. 2019-12-09. Translation Les Hénokiens is an international club reserved for thirty-eight major industrial dynasties with at least two hundred years of history. Like the Bortolo Nardini. Italy boasts fourteen names, against the eleven French and the three Germans. Standing out are the Amarelli di Cosenza, founded in 1731, the Fratelli Piacenza (1733), the Fabbrica d’Armi Pietro Beretta (1526)..
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  495. Web site: sinfonia nell'Enciclopedia Treccani. www.treccani.it. it-IT. 2019-12-09.
  496. Web site: History of the Symphony Music Appreciation. courses.lumenlearning.com. 2019-12-09. [Symphony] in the sense of "sounding together," [...] begins [...] [with] 16th- and 17th-century composers including Giovanni Gabrieli’s Sacrae symphoniae [...]; Adriano Banchieri’s Eclesiastiche sinfonie [...]; Lodovico Grossi da Viadana’s Sinfonie musicali [...]; and Heinrich Schütz’s Symphoniae sacrae....
  497. Web site: symphony Description, History, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-12-09.
  498. Web site: Taste the History of Gelato. Donati. Silvia. 2013-08-16. ITALY Magazine. 2019-11-06.
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  505. Web site: Does Columbus' Voyage Mark the Start of the Modern Age?. History Hit. 2019-11-05.
  506. See Encyclopædia Britannica Online "Amerigo Vespucci" and Room, Adrian (2004), Placenames of the world: origins and meanings of the names for over 5000 natural features, countries, capitals, territories, cities and historic sights; the Americas are believed to have derived their name from the feminized Latin version of his first name.
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