List of African-American inventors and scientists explained

This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine.

History

African Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation.[1] Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions.

Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts.[2] He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from peanuts that were useful for the house and farm. He received numerous honors for his work, including the Spingarn Medal of the NAACP.

A later renowned scientist was Percy Lavon Julian, a research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine, and a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills.[3]

A contemporary example of a modern-day inventor is Lonnie George Johnson, an engineer. Johnson invented the Super Soaker water gun, which was the top-selling toy in the United States from 1991 to 1992. In 1980 Johnson formed his own law firm and licensed the Super Soaker water gun to Larami Corporation. Two years later, the Super Soaker generated over $200 million in retail sales and became the best selling toy in North America. Larami Corporation was eventually purchased by Hasbro, the second largest toy manufacturer in the world. Over the years, Super Soaker sales have totaled close to one billion dollars. Johnson reinvested a majority of his earnings from the Super Soaker into research and development for his energy technology companies – "It's who I am, it's what I do."[4] As of 2019, Johnson holds over 120 patents, with more pending, and is the author of several publications on spacecraft power systems.[5] [6] [7] https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists&action=edit&section=1

List

NameYearsOccupationsInventions / accomplishmentsReferences
Adkins, Rodney1958–Electrical engineerFirst African American to serve as a senior vice president at IBM, helped develop IBM ThinkPad
Alcorn, George Edward Jr.1940–Physicist, inventorInvented a method of fabricating an imaging X-ray spectrometer[8] [9]
Alexander, Archie1888–1958Civil engineerResponsible for the construction of many roads and bridges, including the Whitehurst Freeway, the Tidal Basin Bridge, and an extension to the Baltimore-Washington Parkway.
Ammons, VirgieDecember 29, 1908 – July 12, 2000InventorFiled the fireplace throat damper patent on August 6, 1974.[10]
Amos, Harold1918–2003MicrobiologistFirst African-American department chair at Harvard Medical School[11]
Andrews, James J.1930–1998MathematicianPut forth the Andrews–Curtis conjecture in group theory with Morton L. Curtis, still unsolved[12]
Bailey, Leonard C.1825–1918Inventor
    		[13]
    Ball, Alice Augusta1892–1916ChemistDeveloped a technique to make chaulmoogra oil injectable and absorbable, for the first effective treatment of Hansen's disease (leprosy)[14]
    Banneker, Benjamin1731–1806Almanac author; surveyor; farmerConstructed wooden clock; astronomer; assisted in the survey of the original boundaries of the District of Columbia; authored a series of almanacs and ephemerides; naturalist: recorded observations on emergences of periodical cicadas and on the behavior of honey bees.[15]
    Banyaga, Augustin1947–MathematicianWork on diffeomorphisms and symplectomorphisms[16]
    Bashen, Janet1957–Inventor, entrepreneur, professional consultantFirst African-American woman to receive a patent for a web-based software invention, LinkLine, an Equal Employment Opportunity case management and tracking software[17]
    Bath, Patricia1942–2019OphthalmologistFirst African-American female physician to receive a patent for a medical invention; inventions relate to cataract surgery and include the Laserphaco Probe, which revolutionized the industry in the 1980s, and an ultrasound technique for treatment[18] [19] [20]
    Beard, Andrew1849–1921Farmer, carpenter, blacksmith, railroad worker, businessman, inventorJanney coupler improvements; invented the car device #594,059 dated November 23, 1897; rotary engine patent #478,271 dated July 5, 1892[21]
    Bell, Earl S.1977–Inventor, entrepreneur, architect, industrial designerInvented chair with sliding skin (2004) and the quantitative display apparatus (2005)[22] [23] [24]
    Benjamin, Miriam1861–1947Inventor, educatorInvented "Gong and Signal Chair for Hotels"; second African-American woman to receive a patent[25]
    Berry, Leonidas1902–1995GastroenterologistGastroscope pioneer[26]
    Bharucha-Reid, Albert T.1927–1985Mathematician, statisticianProbability theory and Markov chain theorist[27]
    Black, Keith1957–NeurosurgeonBrain tumor surgery and research[28] [29]
    Blackwell, David1919–2010Mathematician, statisticianFirst proposed the Blackwell channel model used in coding theory and information theory; one of the eponyms of the Rao–Blackwell theorem, which is a process that significantly improves crude statistical estimators[30]
    Blair, Henry1807–1860InventorSecond black inventor to issue a patent; invented seed planter and cotton planter.[31] [32]
    Boahen, Kwabena1964–BioengineerSilicon retina able to process images in the same manner as a living retina[33] [34]
    Boone, Sarah1832–1905InventorIroning board allowing sleeves of women's garments to be ironed more easily[35] [36] [37]
    Bouchet, Edward1852–1918PhysicistFirst African-American to receive a PhD in any subject; received physics doctorate from Yale University in 1876
    Bowman, James1923–2011PhysicianPathologist and geneticist; Professor Emeritus Pritzker School of Medicine; first tenured African-American professor at the University of Chicago Division of Biological Sciences[38] [39]
    Boykin, Otis1920–1982Inventor, engineerArtificial heart pacemaker control unit[40] [41] [42]
    Brady, St. Elmo1884–1966ChemistPublished three scholarly abstracts in Science; collaborated on a paper published in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry[43]
    Brannon, Horace Signor1884–1970PhysicianWorld War I veteran, military physician who served in the 93rd Infantry Division[44] [45]
    Branson, Herman1914–1995Physicist, educatorProtein structure research[46] [47]
    Brooks, Charles1865– ?InventorStreet sweeper truck and a type of paper punch[48] [49] [50]
    Brown, Henry1832– ?InventorInvented fire safe[51]
    Brown, Oscar E.18xx– ?InventorReceived a patent for an improved horseshoe[52]
    Brown, Marie Van Brittan1922–1999InventorInvented the home security system[53]
    Burr, John Albert18xx– ?InventorRotary-blade lawn mower patent[54]
    Cannon, Thomas C.1943–InventorLed a group of engineers who developed the Tactical Optical Fiber Connector (TOFC), the first fiber optic connector deployed under battlefield conditions, and the ST Connector that helped make fiber optic communications affordable.
    Cardozo, William Warrick1905–1962PediatricianSickle cell anemia studies; in October 1937 he published "Immunologic Studies in Sickle Cell Anemia" in the Archives of Internal Medicine; many of the findings are still valid today
    Carson, Ben1951–Pediatric neurosurgeonPediatric neurosurgery at Johns Hopkins University; first surgeon to successfully separate craniopagus twins[55]
    Carruthers, George(1931–2020)AstrophysicistInvented ultraviolet camera/spectrograph, which was used by NASA when it launched Apollo 16 in 1972
    Carver, George Washington1865–1943Botanical researcherDiscovered hundreds of uses for previously useless vegetables and fruits, principally the peanut[56] [57] [58] [59]
    Chandler, Edward Marion Augustus1887–1973Chemist2nd African American to obtain a PhD in chemistry in US and part of the founding faculty of Roosevelt College (now Roosevelt University)[60]
    Chappelle, Charles W.1872–1941Electrician, construction, international businessman, and aviation pioneerDesigned long-distance flight airplane; the only African-American to invent and display the airplane at the 1911 First Industrial Air Show held in conjunction with the Auto Show at Grand Central Palace in Manhattan in New York City; president of the African Union Company, Inc.[61] [62] [63]
    Chappelle, Emmett1925–2019Scientist and researcherValuable contributions to several fields: medicine, biology, food science, and astrochemistry
    Chin, KarenPaleontologistConsidered one of the world's leading experts in coprolites
    Clark, Kenneth B.1917–1983PsychologistFirst Black president of the American Psychological Association[64]
    Clark, Mamie Phipps1914–2005PsychologistConducted 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race
    Crosthwait, David Jr.1898–1976Research engineerHeating, ventilation, and air conditioning; received some 40 US patents relating to HVAC systems
    Curtis, James H. "Nick"1935–Researcher, chemist (electronics/specialty chemicals)Organic ionogen for aluminum electrolytic capacitors, cationic dialdehyde polysaccharides for wet strength paper and others, US Patent Office US Pat #3609467 US Pat #3547423 and others
    Dabiri, John1980–BiophysicistExpert on jellyfish hydrodynamics and designer of a vertical-axis wind farm adapted from schooling fish
    Daly, Marie Maynard1921–2003BiochemistFirst black American woman with a PhD in chemistry
    Chuck DavisDavis, Chuck? -2017Inventor and electrical engineerInventor of the pROSHI neurofeedback device.[65] [66]
    Dean, Mark1957–Computer scientistLed the team that developed the ISA bus, and led the design team responsible for creating the first one-gigahertz computer processor chip[67] [68] [69]
    Drew, Charles1904–1950Medical researcherDeveloped improved techniques for blood storage
    Easley, Annie1933–2011[70] Computer scientistWork at the Lewis Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics[71]
    Ellis, Clarence "Skip"1943–2014Computer scientistFirst African American with a PhD in computer science; software inventor including OfficeTalk at Xerox PARC[72] [73]
    Ezerioha, Bisi1972–Automotive engineerDrag racing engineer and driver
    Ferguson, Lloyd Noel1918–2011Chemist, educatorChemistry doctorate, first received (1943, University of California, Berkeley)[74] [75]
    Fox, Brian J.1959–Computer scientist, programmer, technologistOriginal author of bash, and developer of the first online banking website in the US.[76]
    Fryer, Roland G. Jr.1977–Economist, social scientist, statisticianInequality studies
    Gates, Sylvester James1950–Theoretical physicistWork on supersymmetry, supergravity, and superstring theory[77] [78]
    Gilbert, Juan E.1969–Computer scientistAwarded the first Presidential Endowed Chair at Clemson University in honor of his accomplishments
    Gipson, Mack1931–1995GeologistFirst Black man to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
    Goode, Sarah E.1855–1905InventorFolding "cabinet-bed", forerunner of the Murphy bed; first African-American woman to receive a patent in the United States[79] [80] [81]
    Grant, George F.1846–1910Dentist, professorThe first African-American professor at Harvard, Boston dentist, and inventor of a wooden golf tee.[82]
    Graves, Joseph L.1955–Evolutionary biologist[83] [84] [85]
    Green, LisaLinguistSpecializes in syntax and the study of African American English
    Greenaugh, Kevin1956–2023Nuclear engineer[86]
    Griffin, Bessie Blount1914–2009Physical therapist, inventorAmputee self-feeding device[87] [88]
    Hall, Lloyd1894–1971Chemist
    Harewood, Ken R.Molecular biologistGlaxoSmithKline Distinguished Professor and Director of the North Carolina Central University (NCCU) Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research institute and recognized for his work in the fields of cancer biology and cancer drug discovery.[89] [90]
    Harper, Solomon1893–InventorInvented first electrically heated hair roller and 28 other inventions
    Harris, James A.1932–2000RadiochemistCo-discovered Rutherfordium (element 104) and Dubnium (element 105) at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory[91]
    Hawkins, Walter Lincoln1911–1992ScientistInventor at Bell Laboratories[92]
    Hodge, John E.1914–1996Chemist
    Holley, Kerrie1954–Computer scientistIBM's 1st black Distinguished Engineer and 2nd black IBM Fellow. Inventor of several software engineering techniques including system and methods for locating mobile devices using location and presence information[93]
    Jackson, John W. Jr.1953–2007Electrical engineer, inventor, activistCo-inventor of imaging x-ray spectrometer. NASA engineer. United States of America Army Civilian Engineer.
    Jackson, Mary1921–2005Mathematician, Aerospace engineerNASA's first black female engineer
    Jackson, Shirley1946–PhysicistDistinguished and pioneering scientific career, achieving several "firsts" as a woman and as an African-American[94]
    Jackson, William1936–Laser chemist/photochemist, cometary astrochemist at Howard University and UC DavisResearch to unravel the key photochemical sinks of important molecules in planetary atmospheres, in our and other solar systems, around stars, and the interstellar medium.[95]
    Jarvis, Erich1965–NeurobiologistDuke University neuroscience bird songs studies[96] [97] [98]
    Jefferson, Roland1923–2020BotanistFirst African-American botanist to work at the United States National Arboretum; played important role in the preservation of Washington, D.C.'s famous flowering cherry trees.[99]
    Jennings, Thomas L.1791–1856InventorFirst African American to be granted a patent (for a dry cleaning process called dry scouring)[100]
    Johnson, Isaac18xx– ?InventorHeld patent for improvements to the bicycle frame, specifically so it could be taken apart for compact storage[101]
    Johnson, Katherine1918–2020Physicist, mathematicianMade contributions to the United States' aeronautics and space programs with the early application of digital electronic computers at NASA.
    Johnson, Lonnie1949–Mechanical engineer, nuclear engineer, inventorInvented Super Soaker while researching thermal energy transfer engines; worked with NASA; holder of over 80 patents[102] [103] [104]
    Jones, Frederick McKinley1893–1961InventorInvented refrigerated truck systems[105]
    Julian, Percy1899–1975ChemistFirst to synthesize the natural product physostigmine; earned 130 chemical patents; lauded for humanitarian achievements[106] [107] [108] [109]
    Just, Ernest1883–1941Woods Hole Marine Biology Institute biologistProvided basic and initial descriptions of the structure–function–property relationship of the plasma membrane of biological cells[110] [111] [112]
    Kittles, Rick1967–GeneticistWork in tracing the ancestry of African Americans via DNA testing[113] [114]
    Kountz, Samuel L.1930–1981Transplant surgeon, researcherOrgan transplantation pioneer, particularly renal transplant research and surgery; author or co-author of 172 articles in scientific publications[115] [116] [117] [118]
    Land, AdrianMicrobiologistResearcher on Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus[119] [120] [121]
    Latimer, Lewis1848–1928Inventor, draftsman, expert witnessWorked as a draftsman for both Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison; invented the more durable filament, which made the incandescent light bulb last long enough to be useful; became a member of Edison's Pioneers and served as an expert witness in many light bulb litigation lawsuits; said to have invented the water closet.[122] [123] [124] [125]
    Lawson, Jerry1940–2011Computer engineerDesigner of Fairchild Channel F, the first programmable ROM cartridge-based video game console[126] [127]
    Lee, Raphael Carl1949–Surgeon, biomedical engineerProfessor at Pritzker School of Medicine; discovered ways to improve injury repair mechanisms of living cells; holds patents related to scar treatment therapies, tissue engineered ligaments, brain trauma therapies, and protective garments[128] [129] [130] [131] [132]
    Lynk, Beebe Steven1872–1948ChemistTeacher at West Tennessee University
    Mahoney, Mary1845–1926NurseFirst African-American to study and work as a professionally trained nurse in the United States[133]
    Martin, Thomas J.1842–1872InventorAwarded a patent in 1872 for improvements to the fire extinguisher[134] [135] [136] [137]
    McBay, Henry1914–1995ChemistHis discoveries allowed chemists around the world to create inexpensive peroxide compounds[138] [139]
    McCoy, Elijah1844–1929InventorInvented the automatic lubricator for steam engines, McCoy learned a great deal of his skills from a mechanical apprenticeship when he was age fifteen.[140] [141]
    McLurkin, James1972–Roboticist[142]
    McNair, Ronald1950–1986Astronaut and PhysicistSpecialized in chemical and high-pressure laser physics
    McWhorter, John1965–LinguistSpecializes in the study of creole language formation
    Mensah, Thomas1950–2024Inventor
    Miles, Alexander1838–1918InventorInvented electric elevator doors that automatically open and close[143]
    Montgomery, Benjamin1819–1877InventorDesigned a steam operated propeller to provide propulsion to boats in shallow water
    Moore, Willie Hobbs1934–1994PhysicistFirst African-American woman to earn a PhD in physics (University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1972) on vibrational analysis of secondary chlorides[144]
    Morgan, Garrett1877–1963InventorInvented an early version of a gas mask called a smoke hood, and created the first traffic light that included a third "warning" position which is standard today. Morgan also developed a chemical that was used in hair products for hair-straightening.[145] [146]
    Nriagu, Jerome1944–GeochemistStudies toxic metals in the environment; supporter of the lead poisoning thesis of the decline of the Roman Empire
    Parker, Alice H.1895–1920InventorFurnace for Central Heating
    Petters, Arlie1964–PhysicistWork on the mathematical physics of gravitational lensing
    Poindexter, Hildrus1901–1987Bacteriologist, epidemiologistWork on the epidemiology of tropical diseases, including malaria
    Quarterman, Lloyd Albert1918–1982Scientist, fluoride chemistManhattan Project, worked with Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi
    Renfroe, Earl1907–2000Orthodontist[147] [148]
    Rillieux, Norbert1806–1894Engineer, inventorInventor of the multiple-effect evaporator[149]
    Robinson, Larry1957–Environmental chemistInvestigated possible role of arsenic in the death of Zachary Taylor; interim president of Florida A&M University
    Ross, ArchiaTurn of 20th centuryInventorA runner for stoops (1896), bag closure device (1898), a wrinkle-preventing trouser stretcher (1899), a garment-hanger (1903), and a holder for brooms and like articles.[150] [151]
    Russell, Jesse1948–Engineer, inventorWireless communications engineer
    Ruth, William Chester1882–1971Inventor, machinistCombination baler feeder, self-lifting farm elevator[152]
    Sammons, Walter1890–1973InventorPatent for hot comb[153]
    Snyder, Window1976–Computer engineerSecurity engineer at Microsoft, Mozilla, and Apple
    Sowell, Thomas1930–Economist, social scientistEconomist, social theorist and political philosopher[154] [155] [156] [157]
    Steele, Claude1946–Psychologist, social scientistStereotype threat studies
    Stiff, Lee1941–MathematicianPresident of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics from 2000 to 2002[158]
    Temple, Lewis1800–1854Inventor, blacksmith, abolitionistInventor of the toggling whaling harpoon head[159]
    Thomas, Valerie1943–Data analyst and inventorInvented the illusion transmitter[160]
    Thomas, Vivien1910–1985Surgical technicianBlue baby syndrome treatment in the 1940s[161] [162] [163]
    Turner, Charles Henry1867–1923ZoologistFirst person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch, that cockroaches can learn by trial and error, and that honeybees can see color; first African-American to receive a PhD from the University of Chicago[164]
    Tyree, G. Bernadette19xx–Program Director, Division of Musculoskeletal Diseases, at National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health[165]
    Tyson, Neil deGrasse1958–AstronomerResearcher and popular educator in astronomy and the sciences[166] [167] [168]
    Valerino, Powtawche1980–EngineerWorked for JPL and NASA at Langley Research Center
    Vaughan, Dorothy1910–2008MathematicianWorked for NACA and NASA at Langley Research Center
    Walker, Arthur B. C. Jr.1936–2001AstronomerDeveloped normal incidence multilayer XUV telescopes to photograph the solar corona[169] [170] [171]
    Walker, C. J.1867–1919InventorCreated black cosmetic products[172]
    Ward, Dawn N.1973–Organic chemistryCreates compounds to treat Hepatitis C[173]
    Washington, Warren M.1936–Atmospheric scientistFormer chair of the National Science Board[174] [175] [176] [177]
    West, James E.1931–Acoustician, inventorCo-developed the foil electret microphone[178] [179] [180]
    White, LisaPaleontologistGeologist and Director of Education and Outreach at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
    Wilkins, J. Ernest Jr.1923–2011Mathematician, engineer, nuclear scientistEntered University of Chicago at age 13; PhD at 19; worked on the Manhattan Project; wrote more than 100 scientific papers; helped recruit minorities into the sciences[181] [182] [183]
    Williams, Daniel1856–1931SurgeonThe first black person on record to have successfully performed pericardium (the sac surrounding the heart) surgery to repair a wound.[184]
    Williams, Marguerite Thomas1895–1991GeologistFirst Black person to receive a Ph.D. in Geology
    Williams, Scott W.1943–Mathematician[185]
    Williams, Walter E.1936–2020Economist, social scientist[186] [187] [188]
    Woods, Granville1856–1910InventorInvented the synchronous multiplex railway telegraph[189]
    Wright, Jane C.1919–2013Cancer research and surgeonNoted for her contributions to chemotherapy and for pioneering the use of the drug methotrexate to treat breast cancer and skin cancer
    Wright, Louis T.1891–1952SurgeonLed team that first used Aureomycin as a treatment on humans[190] [191] [192]
    Yaeger, Ivan1967–InventorInventor of the Yaeger Prosthetic Arm
    Young, Roger Arliner1899–1964ZoologistFirst African-American woman to receive a doctorate degree in zoology[193] [194]

    See also

    External links

    Notes and References

    1. Cook. Lisa D.. 2014-06-01. Violence and economic activity: evidence from African American patents, 1870–1940. Journal of Economic Growth. 19. 2. 221–257. 10.1007/s10887-014-9102-z. 153971489. 1573-7020.
    2. Carver, George Washington. 1916. "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption", Tuskegee Institute Experimental Station Bulletin 31.
    3. Web site: 2016-06-01. Percy Lavon Julian. 2020-08-03. Science History Institute.
    4. Web site: Interview with CNBC's How I Made my Millions. https://web.archive.org/web/20100924060921/http://www.thelifefiles.com/2010/09/22/meet-lonnie-johnson-he-made-millions-selling-water-guns/. dead. September 24, 2010. The Life Files . April 2, 2018.
    5. Web site: Lonnie George Johnson. 2020-08-03. www.nsbp.org.
    6. Roche, Timothy. Soaking In Success, Time, December 4, 2000.
    7. http://www.inventorsdigest.com/?page_id=168 Products Created by Independent Inventors
    8. Web site: George Edward Alcorn, Jr.. https://archive.today/20130116081600/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blbennett.htm. dead. January 16, 2013. About.com. February 27, 2008.
    9. News: Alcorn exceled in missile research . February 27, 2008 . George Edward Alcorn Jr. attended Occidental College in Los Angeles where he earned eight letters in basketball and football and was an honors student studying physics. He received his bachelor's degree in 1962 and a master's in nuclear physics from Howard University a year later. He attended Occidental College in Los Angeles where he earned eight letters in basketball and football and was an honors student studying physics. He received his bachelor's degree in 1962 and a master's in nuclear physics from Howard University a year later. . . February 20, 2002.
    10. Web site: The Virgie Ammons Fireplace Tool Keeps Heat from Escaping the Chimney.
    11. Web site: Dr. Harold Amos, 84; Mentor to Aspiring Minority Physicians . March 11, 2011 . March 8, 2003 . Los Angeles Times.
    12. .
    13. US. RE11830. Folding Bed. Bailey. Leonard. June 12, 1900.
    14. News: Mendheim. Beverly. Lost and Found: Alice Augusta Ball, an Extraordinary Woman of Hawai'i Nei. May 20, 2013. Northwest Hawaii Times. September 2007. October 6, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095537/http://www.northwesthawaiitimes.com/hnsept07.htm. dead.
    15. Book: Bedini, Silvio A.. Silvio Bedini. The Life of Benjamin Banneker: The First African-American Man of Science. 1999. 2nd. Baltimore. Maryland Historical Society. 0-938420-59-3. 894558859. 98022848. September 11, 2019. Internet Archive.
    16. http://www.ias.edu/people/cos/frontpage?page=8 Institute for Advanced Study: A Community of Scholars
    17. https://archive.today/20120709071403/http://inventors.about.com/od/blackinventors/a/bashen.htm Janet Emerson Bashen
    18. Book: Henderson, Susan K.. African-American Inventors III. March 1, 1998. Capstone Press. 978-1-56065-698-2. 12.
    19. Modern Black Inventors. February 25, 2011. 101. February 4, 2002. Jet. 55. 0021-5996. 7.
    20. Book: Lambert, Laura. Inventors and Inventions. September 1, 2007. Marshall Cavendish. 978-0-7614-7763-1. 72.
    21. Web site: Andrew Beard (1849–1921). https://archive.today/20120713044542/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blbeard.htm. dead. July 13, 2012. About.com: Inventors. Bellis. Mary. 2008. February 14, 2008.
    22. https://archive.today/20120709051748/http://inventors.about.com/od/blackinventors/a/black_historyB_2.htm Earl S. Bell
    23. http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=2&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=%22bell+earl+s%22.IN.&OS=IN/%22bell+earl+s%22&RS=IN/%22bell+earl+s%22 Earl S. Bell
    24. http://atlantapost.com/2011/01/10/contemporary-african-americans-inventors/7/ Earl S. Bell
    25. Bellis, Mary. Inventors: Miriam Benjamin, Retrieved from About.com website, February 17, 2011.
    26. Web site: Deaths, University of Chicago Magazine, April 96. magazine.uchicago.edu. April 2, 2018.
    27. Williams, Scott W. (2008). "Mathematicians of the African Diaspora: Albert Turner Bharucha-Reid". The Mathematics Department of the State University of New York at Buffalo. Retrieved November 25, 2012.
    28. Book: Keith Black. Arnold Mann. Brain Surgeon: A Doctor's Inspiring Encounters with Mortality and Miracles. March 25, 2009. Grand Central Life & Style. 978-0-446-58109-7.
    29. Michael D. Lemonick, "The Tumor War", Time, Heroes of Medicine special edition, Fall 1997 (retrieved May 15, 2009).
    30. News: Cattau . Daniel . David Blackwell 'Superstar' . Illinois Alumni . 32–34 . University of Illinois Alumni Association . July 2009.
    31. http://library.thinkquest.org/3337/blair.html Maryland's African American Heritage: Henry Blair
    32. Web site: African American Inventors You Should Know: Henry Blair. https://archive.today/20120709193849/http://inventors.about.com/od/blackinventors/a/Henry_Blair.htm. dead. July 9, 2012. about.com. April 2, 2018.
    33. http://bioengineering.stanford.edu/faculty/boahen.html Kwabena Boahen, PhD, Associate Professor of Bioengineering
    34. http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/26123.wss IBM Seeks to Build the Computer of the Future Based on Insights from the Brain: IBM Awarded DARPA Funding for Cognitive Computing Collaboration
    35. http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/sarah-boone.html Sarah Boone
    36. Web site: Ironing-board. April 2, 2018.
    37. Web site: Sarah Boone, 7th March 1878 ?. The History Woman. April 2, 2018.
    38. Web site: August 23, 2008 . Insider has Obama's ear: What's she telling him? . Terry . Don . Chicago Tribune . July 27, 2008 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080729102408/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-072708-jarrett,0,1640738.story . July 29, 2008.
    39. Web site: March 15, 2009 . The Bowman Society . Pritzker Pulse . Spring 2005 . Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080724084205/http://pritzker.bsd.uchicago.edu/about/news/pritzkerpulse/2005spring/bowman.shtml . July 24, 2008.
    40. [United States Department of Energy|U.S. Department of Energy]
    41. http://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120427184842/http://inventors.about.com/od/bstartinventors/a/Otis_Boykin.htm Mary Bellis, "Otis Boykin"
    42. "Inventor of Heart Stimulator Honored at Memorial Service." Dallas Morning News, March 18, 1982, p. 88.
    43. http://chemistry.uiuc.edu/bios/brady.html University of Illinois biography
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