Nepali language explained

Nepali
Nativename:Nepali: नेपाली
Pronunciation:in Nepali pronounced as /ˈnepali/
States:
Region:Himalayas
Ethnicity:Khas
Speakers:L1

million

Date:2011–2021
Ref:e27
Speakers2:L2

million (2021 census)
Total: million

Familycolor:Indo-European
Fam2:Indo-Iranian
Fam3:Indo-Aryan
Fam4:Northern Zone
Fam5:Eastern Pahari
Ancestor:Proto-Indo-European
Ancestor2:Proto-Indo-Iranian
Ancestor3:Proto-Indo-Aryan
Ancestor4:Vedic Sanskrit
Ancestor5:Classical Sanskrit
Ancestor6:Prakrit
Ancestor7:Apabhraṃśa
Ancestor8:Khasa Prakrit
Script:
Nation:
Agency:Nepal Academy
Iso1:ne
Iso2:nep
Iso3:nep
Lc1:npi
Ld1:Nepali
Linglist:nep
Lingname:Nepali (macrolanguage)
Linglist2:npi
Lingname2:Nepali (individual language)
Lingua:59-AAF-d
Map:Nepali language map.svg
Minority:Bhutan
Notice:Nepal
Sign:Signed Nepali
Glotto:nepa1254
Glottorefname:Nepali [1]
Glottorefname2:Nepali [2]

Nepali (;[1], in Nepali pronounced as /ˈnepali/) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Himalayas region of South Asia. It is the official, and most widely spoken, language of Nepal, where it also serves as a lingua franca. Nepali has official status in the Indian state of Sikkim and in the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal. It is spoken by about a quarter of Bhutan's population. Nepali also has a significant number of speakers in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Uttarakhand.[2] In Myanmar it is spoken by the Burmese Gurkhas. The Nepali diaspora in the Middle East, Brunei, Australia and worldwide also use the language.[3] Nepali is spoken by approximately 19 million native speakers and another 14 million as a second language.

Nepali is commonly classified within the Eastern Pahari group of the Northern zone of Indo-Aryan.The language originated from the Sinja Valley, Karnali Province then the capital city of the Khasa Kingdom around the 10th and 14th centuries. It developed proximity to a number of Indo-Aryan languages, most significantly to other Pahari languages. Nepali was originally spoken by the Khas people, an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to the Himalayan region of South Asia. The earliest inscription in the Nepali language is believed to be an inscription in Dullu, Dailekh District which was written around the reign of King Bhupal Damupal around the year 981. The institutionalisation of the Nepali language arose during the rule of the Kingdom of Gorkha (later became known as the Kingdom of Nepal) in the 16th century. Over the centuries, different dialects of the Nepali language with distinct influences from Sanskrit, Maithili, Hindi, and Bengali are believed to have emerged across different regions of the current-day Nepal and Uttarakhand, making Nepali the lingua franca.

Nepali is a highly fusional language with a relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–object–verb word order (SOV). There are three major levels or gradations of honorific: low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. Around 1830, several Nepali poets wrote on themes from the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana, which was followed by Bhanubhakta Acharya translating the Ramayana in Nepali which received "great popularity for the colloquial flavour of its language, its religious sincerity, and its realistic natural descriptions".[4]

Etymology

See also: Name of Nepal.

The term Nepali derived from Nepal was officially adopted by the Government of Nepal in 1933, when Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Gorkha Language Publishing Committee), a government institution established in 1913 (B.S. 1970) for advancement of Gorkha Bhasa, renamed itself as Nepali Bhasa Prakashini Samiti (Nepali Language Publishing Committee) in 1933 (B.S. 1990), which is currently known as Sajha Prakashan.[5] Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the former national anthem entitled "Shriman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.[6] However, the term Nepali was used before the official adoption notably by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh, now considered one of the national heroes of Nepal, who advocated for the embracement of the term.[7]

The initial name of Nepali language was "Khas Kura" (Nepali: खस कुरा|label=none), meaning language or speech of the Khas people, who are descended from the ancient Khasas of Mahabharata, as the language developed during the rule of the Khasa Kingdom in the western Nepal.[8] Following the Unification of Nepal led by Shah dynasty's Prithvi Narayan Shah, Nepali language became known as Gorakhā Bhāṣā (Nepali: गोरखा भाषा|label=none; language of the Gorkhas) as it was spoken by Gorkhas.[9] [10] The people living in the Pahad or the hilly region, where it does not generally contain snow, called the language Parvate Kurā (Nepali: पर्वते कुरा|label=none), meaning the speech of the hills.[11] [12]

History

Origin and development

See also: Prakrit, Apabhraṃśa, Khasa Prakrit language and Dardic languages.

Early forms of present-day Nepali developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa Vernaculars of present-day western Nepal in the 10th–14th centuries, during the times of the Khasa Kingdom.[13] The language evolved from Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Apabhraṃśa. Following the decline of the Khasa Kingdom, it was divided into Baise Rajya (22 principalities) in Karnali-Bheri region and Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) in Gandaki region. The currently popular variant of Nepali is believed to have originated around 500 years ago with the mass migration of a branch of Khas people from the Karnali-Bheri-Seti eastward to settle in lower valleys of the Karnali and the Gandaki basin.[14]

During the times of Sena dynasty, who ruled a vast area in Terai and central hills of Nepal, Nepali language became influenced by the Indian languages including Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Braj Bhasha and Maithili. Nepali speakers and Senas had a close connect, subsequently, the language became the lingua franca in the area. As a result, the grammar became simplified, vocabulary was expanded, and its phonology was softened, after it was syncretised, Nepali lost much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. In the Kathmandu Valley (then known as Nepal Mandala), Nepali language inscriptions can be seen during the reigns of Lakshmi Narasimha Malla and Pratap Malla, which indicates the significant increment of Nepali speakers in Kathmandu Valley.

Middle Nepali

The institutionalisation of the Nepali language is believed to have started with the Shah kings of Gorkha Kingdom, in the modern day Gorkha District of Nepal.[15] Following the Unification of Nepal, the language moved to the court of the Kingdom of Nepal in the 18th century, where it became the state language. One of the earliest works in the Middile Nepali is written during the reign of Ram Shah, King of Gorkha, a book by unknown writer called Ram Shah ko Jivani (A Biography of Ram Shah). Prithvi Narayan Shah's Divyopadesh, written toward the end of his life, around 1774–75, contains old Nepali dialect of the era, is considered as the first work of essay of Nepali literature.[16]

During this time Nepali developed a standardised prose in the Lal mohar (royal charter)—documents related to the Nepalese Kingdom dealing with diplomatic writings, tax, and administrative records. The language of the Lal mohar is nearly modern with some minor differences in grammar and with a pre-modern orthography.[17] Few changes including changing Kari (करि) to Gari (गरि) and merging Hunu (हुनु) with cha (छ) to create huncha (हुन्छ) were done. The most prominent work written during this time was Bhanubhakta Acharya's Bhanubhakta Ramayana, a translation of the epic Ramayana from Sanskrit to Nepali for the first time.[18] Acharya's work led to which some describe as "cultural, emotional and linguistic unification" of Nepal, comparatively to Prithvi Narayan Shah who unified Nepal.[19] [20]

Modern Nepali

See also: Nepali Language Movement.

The modern period of Nepali begins in the early 20th century. During this time the ruling Rana dynasty made various attempts to make Nepali the language of education, notably, by Dev Shumsher and Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, who established Gorkhapatra, and the Gorkha Bhasa Prakashini Samiti respectively.[21] At this time, Nepali had limited literature compared to Hindi and Bengali languages, a movement notably in Banaras, and Darjeeling was started to create uniformed Nepali identity, which was later adopted in Nepal following the 1951 Nepalese revolution and during the Panchayat system. In 1957, Royal Nepal Academy was established with the objectives of developing and promoting Nepali literature, culture, art and science.[22] During Panchayat, Nepal adopted a "One King, One Dress, One Language, One Nation" ideology, which promoted Nepali language as basis for Nepali nationalism, this time is considered to be a Golden Age for the language.[23] [24]

In West Bengal, Nepali language was recognised by West Bengal Government in 1961 as the official language for the Darjeeling district, and Kalimpong and Kurseong.[25] The Nepali Language Movement took place in India around 1980s to include Nepali language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.[26] In 1977, Nepali was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of Indian literature.[27] After Sikkim was annexed by India, the Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977, made Nepali as one of the official languages of state.[28] On 20 August 1992, the Lok Sabha passed a motion to add the Nepali language to the Eighth Schedule.[29]

Official status

Nepali written in the Devanagari script is the official language of Nepal.[30] [31]

On 31 August 1992, Nepali was added to the list of scheduled languages of India.[32] Nepali is the official language of the state of Sikkim and of Gorkhaland, West Bengal.

Despite being spoken by about a quarter of the population,[33] Nepalese has no official status in Bhutan.[34]

Geographic distribution

Nepal

According to the 2011 national census, 44.6% of the population of Nepal speaks Nepali as its first language.[35] and 32.8% speak Nepali as a second language.[36] Ethnologue reports 12,300,000 speakers within Nepal (from the 2011 census). It is spoken by 20,250,952, about 77.20% of the population, as their first language and second language.[37]

India

According to the 2011 Census of India, there were a total of 2,926,168 Nepali language speakers in India.[38]

Nepali speakers in India by state[39] [40] !State!Nepali speakers (2011 census)
West Bengal1,155,375
Assam596,210
Sikkim382,200
Uttarakhand106,399
Arunachal Pradesh95,317
Himachal Pradesh89,508
Maharashtra75,683
Manipur63,756
Meghalaya54,716
43,481
Delhi National Capital Territory37,468
Gujarat25,142
Jammu and Kashmir22,138
Punjab22,061
Haryana19,914
Karnataka19,274
Uttar Pradesh18,743
Jharkhand16,956
Andhra Pradesh11,551
Mizoram8,994
Madhya Pradesh8,724
Odisha8,654
Rajasthan7,636
Tamil Nadu7,575
Chandigarh6,546
Bihar5,727
Kerala3,665
Chhattisgarh3,431
Tripura2,787
Goa2,600
Daman and Diu1,401
Dadra and Nagar Haveli1,152
Andaman and Nicobar Islands949
Puducherry431
Lakshadweep4

Bhutan

In Bhutan, native Nepali speakers, known as Lhotshampa, are estimated at 35%[41] of the population. This number includes displaced Bhutanese refugees, with unofficial estimates of the ethnic Bhutanese refugee population as high as 30 to 40%, constituting a majority in the south (about 242,000 people).[42]

Australia

Nepali is the third-most spoken language in the Australian state of Tasmania, where it is spoken by 1.3% of its population,[43] and fifth-most spoken language in the Northern Territory, Australia, spoken by 1.3% of its population.[44] Nepali is the most spoken language other than English in Rockdale and Kogarah. In Granville, Campsie and Ashfield it is the second most commonly spoken language other than English. Allawah and Hurstville have third most Nepali speaking population in New South Wales. There are regular Nepali language News papers and Magazines in Australia.

International

International geographic distribution!Country!Speaker population!Notes
300,000-500,000[45]
133,068[46] 2021 census
25,472[47] 2016 census
13,375[48] 2016 census
7,234[49] 2023 statistics

Phonology

See main article: Nepali phonology.

Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below.

Vowels

Nepali vowel phonemes!! Front! Central! Back
Closepronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ĩ/pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ũ/
Close-midpronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ẽ/pronounced as /link/
Open-midpronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ʌ̃/
Openpronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ã/

Nepali distinguishes six oral vowels and five nasal vowels. /o/ does not have a phonemic nasal counterpart, although it is often in free variation with [õ].

Nepali has ten diphthongs: /ui̯/, /iu̯/, /ei̯/, /eu̯/, /oi̯/, /ou̯/, /ʌi̯/, /ʌu̯/, /ai̯/, and /au̯/.

Consonants

! Bilabial! Dental! Alveolar! Retroflex! Palatal! Velar! Glottal
Nasalpronounced as /link/ (म)pronounced as /link/ (न/ञ)(pronounced as /link/ (ण))pronounced as /link/ (ङ)
Plosive/
Affricate
voicelessunaspiratedpronounced as /link/ (प)pronounced as /link/ (त)pronounced as /link/ (च)pronounced as /link/ (ट)pronounced as /link/ (क)
aspiratedpronounced as /link/ (फ)pronounced as /link/ (थ)pronounced as /link/ (छ)pronounced as /link/ (ठ)pronounced as /link/ (ख)
voicedunaspiratedpronounced as /link/ (ब)pronounced as /link/ (द)pronounced as /link/ (ज)pronounced as /link/ (ड)pronounced as /link/ (ग)
aspiratedpronounced as /link/ (भ)pronounced as /link/ (ध)pronounced as /link/ (/झ)pronounced as /link/ (ढ)pronounced as /link/ (घ)
Fricativepronounced as /link/ (श/ष/स)pronounced as /link/ (ह)
Rhoticpronounced as /link/ (र)
Approximant(pronounced as /link/ (व))pronounced as /link/ (ल)(pronounced as /link/ (य))

[j] and [w] are nonsyllabic allophones of [i] and [u], respectively. Every consonant except [j], [w], and /ɦ/ has a geminate counterpart between vowels. /ɳ/ and /ʃ/ also exist in some loanwords such as /baɳ/ Nepali: बाण "arrow" and /nareʃ/ Nepali: नरेश "king", but these sounds are sometimes replaced with native Nepali phonemes. The murmured stops may lose their breathy-voice between vowels and word-finally. Non-geminate aspirated and murmured stops may also become fricatives, with /pʰ/ as [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]]], /bʱ/ as [<nowiki/>[[Voiced bilabial fricative|β]]], /kʰ/ as [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]], and /ɡʱ/ as [<nowiki/>[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]]. Examples of this are /sʌpʰa/ 'clean' becoming [sʌɸa] and /ʌɡʱaɖi/ 'before' becoming [ʌɣaɽi].[50]

Typically, sounds transcribed with the retroflex symbols ⟨ʈ, ʈʰ, ɖ, ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃⟩ are not purely retroflex [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless retroflex plosive|ʈ]], ʈʰ, ɖ, ɖʱ, ɽ, ɳ, ɽ̃] but apical postalveolar [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless postalveolar plosive|t̠]], t̠ʰ, , d̠ʱ, ɾ̠, n̠, ɾ̠̃]. Some speakers may use purely retroflex sounds after /u/ and /a/, but other speakers use the apical articulation in all positions.

Final schwas may or may not be preserved in speech. The following rules can be followed to figure out whether or not Nepali words retain the final schwa:

  1. Schwa is retained if the final syllable is a conjunct consonant. ('end'), ('relation'), ('greatest'/a last name).
    Exceptions: conjuncts such as in ('stage') ('city') and occasionally the last name (/).
  2. For any verb form the final schwa is always retained unless the schwa-cancelling halanta is present. ('it happens'), ('in happening so; therefore'), ('he apparently went'), but ('they are'), ('she went'). Meanings may change with the wrong orthography: ('she didn't go') vs ('she went').
  3. Adverbs, onomatopoeia and postpositions usually maintain the schwa and if they don't, halanta is acquired: ('now'), ('towards'), ('today') ('drizzle') vs ('more').
  4. Few exceptional nouns retain the schwa such as: ('suffering'), ('pleasure').

Note: Schwas are often retained in music and poetry to add extra syllables when needed.

Grammar

See main article: Nepali grammar.

Nepali is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is SOV (subject–object–verb). There are three major levels or gradations of honorifics: low, medium and high. Low honorific is used where no respect is due, medium honorific is used to signify equal status or neutrality, and high honorific signifies respect. There is also a separate highest level honorific, which was used to refer to members of the royal family, and by the royals among themselves. Like all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Nepali grammar has syncretised heavily, losing much of the complex declensional system present in the older languages. Instead, it relies heavily on periphrasis, a marginal verbal feature of older Indo-Aryan languages.

Writing system

See also: Devanagari script. Nepali is generally written in Devanagari script. In certain regions, the Tibetan script was also used in regions with predominantly Tibetic population, with common Tibetan expressions and pronunciation.[51] [52]

In the section below Nepali is represented in Latin transliteration using the IAST scheme and IPA. The chief features are: subscript dots for retroflex consonants; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels; h denoting aspirated plosives. Tildes denote nasalised vowels.

Ligatures

Literature

See main article: Nepali literature.

Nepali developed significant literature within a short period of a hundred years in the 19th century. This literary explosion was fuelled by Adhyatma Ramayana; Sundarananda Bara (1833); Birsikka, an anonymous collection of folk tales; and a version of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya (d. 1868). The contribution of trio-laureates Lekhnath Paudyal, Laxmi Prasad Devkota, and Balkrishna Sama took Nepali to the level of other world languages. The contribution of expatriate writers outside Nepal, especially in Darjeeling and Varanasi in India, is also notable.

Dialects

Dialects of Nepali include Acchami, Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Bheri, Dadeldhuri, Dailekhi, Darchulali, Darchuli, Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, and Soradi. These dialects can be distinct from Standard Nepali. Mutual intelligibility between Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli, and Acchami is low. The dialect of Nepali language spoken in Karnali Province is not mutually intelligible with Standard Nepali. The language is known with its old name as Khas Bhasa in Karnali.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in Nepali, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with a transliteration (IAST) and transcription (IPA).[53]

Nepali in Devanagari Script
  • धारा १. सबै व्यक्तिहरू जन्मजात स्वतन्त्र हुन् ती सबैको समान अधिकार र महत्व छ। निजहरूमा विचार शक्ति र सद्विचार भएकोले निजहरूले आपसमा भातृत्वको भावनाबाट व्यवहार गर्नु पर्छ।
    Transliteration (ISO)
  • Dhārā 1. Sabai vyaktiharū janmajāt svatantra hun tī sabaiko samān adhikār ra mahatva cha. Nijharūmā vicār śakti ra sadvicār bhaekole nijharūle āpasmā bhatṛtvako bhāvanabāṭa vyavahār garnu parcha.
    Transcription (IPA)

    [dʱaɾa ek sʌbʌi̯ bektiɦʌɾu d͡zʌnmʌd͡zat sotʌntɾʌ ɦun ti sʌbʌi̯ko sʌman ʌd(ʱ)ikaɾ rʌ mʌːtːo t͡sʰʌ nid͡zɦʌɾuma bit͡saɾ sʌkti ɾʌ sʌdbit͡sar bʱʌekole nid͡zɦʌɾule apʌsma bʱatɾitːoko bʱawʌnabaʈʌ bebaːr ɡʌɾnu pʌɾt͡sʰʌ]

    Gloss (word-to-word)

    Article 1. All human-beings from-birth independent are their all equal right and importance is. In themselves, intellect and conscience they brotherhood's spirit do must.

    Translation (grammatical)

    Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

    See also

    Bibliography

    Further reading

    External links

    Notes and References

    1. Web site: Nepali Definition of Nepali by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Nepali. https://web.archive.org/web/20200723141410/https://www.lexico.com/definition/nepali. dead. 23 July 2020. 23 July 2020. Lexico Dictionaries English.
    2. Web site: 52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf . 25 May 2017 . 28 May 2022 . nclm.nic.in . Ministry of Minority Affairs.
    3. Web site: Nepali language Britannica . 28 July 2022 . Encyclopædia Britannica . 30 July 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220730235711/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nepali-language . live.
    4. Web site: Nepali literature . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20221023180323/https://www.britannica.com/art/Nepali-literature . 23 October 2022 . 23 October 2022 . Encyclopædia Britannica.
    5. Web site: साझा प्रकाशन एक झलक . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115002/https://sajha.org.np/chinari/28/ . 30 October 2021 . 30 October 2021 . Sajha Prakashan.
    6. News: June 2003 . The kings song . Himal Southasian . dead . 15 June 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121025182216/http://www.himalmag.com/component/content/article/4214-.html . 25 October 2012.
    7. Web site: Vasistha . Kedar . 'गोर्खा पत्रिकाहरू'को पदचाप . 9 November 2021 . Gorakhapatra Online . 9 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211109071349/https://gorkhapatraonline.com/arts/2021-05-07-36969 . live. जङ्गबहादुरलाई पनि घिसार्ने गरिएको पाइन्छ तर उनको पालामा गोर्खा भाषा वा नेपाली भाषा नभनी पाष्या बोली वा पर्वते भाषाको प्रचलन रहेको देखिन्छ । तर उक्त सनद जारी भएको एक वर्षपछिको जङ्गबहादुरको एक पत्रमा उनले गोर्खा वा गोर्खाली वा नेपाली भाषाका नमुना भनी नभनी पाष्या (पाखे) बोली भनेका छन् ।
    8. News: 3 October 2020 . 5 features of Nepali, Nepal's lingua franca, that you are unaware of . Online Khabar . Online Khabar . live . 30 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211030103855/https://english.onlinekhabar.com/features-of-nepali-nepals-lingua-franca-that-you-are-unaware-of.html . 30 October 2021.
    9. Web site: Maharjan . Rajendra . एकल राष्ट्र–राज्यको धङधङी . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20211030115001/https://ekantipur.com/opinion/2021/06/15/162372365631162234.html . 30 October 2021 . 30 October 2021 . EKantipur . Kantipur Publication Limited. आजभन्दा करिब नौ दशकअघि मात्रै देशको नाम 'नेपाल' का रूपमा स्विकारिएको हो भने, पहिले खस–पर्वते–गोर्खाली भनिने भाषालाई 'नेपाली' नामकरण गरिएको हो ।
    10. Book: Baniya . Karnabahadur . सेनकालीन पाल्पाको संस्कृति : एक ऐतिहासिक विवेचना . Tribhuvan Multiple Campus . Palpa . 3–4 . 9 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211109072853/https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/nutaj/article/download/23470/19875/72601 . 9 November 2021 . live.
    11. Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. . Page 3.
    12. Book: Shrestha . Shiva Raj . Khaptad Region in Mythology . 10 . 9 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211109071349/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_143_03.pdf . 9 November 2021 . live.
    13. Web site: Bandhu . C.M . The Role of the Nepali Language in Establishing The National Unity and Identity of Nepal . 1 February 2023 . . The Royal Nepal Academy.
    14. Web site: Wagley . Namit . 14 February 2015 . Nepal Ka Khas Jaati . 21 February 2023 . SpotlightNepal.
    15. Web site: शाह राजाहरूको छत्रछायामा नेपाली साहित्यको विकास . Digital Himalaya . Ancient Nepal . ne.
    16. Web site: Divyopadesh can lead to national prosperity . 28 February 2023 . The Annapurna Express.
    17. भारतमा नेपाली भाषा र साहित्यको उत्थानमा पारसमणी प्रधानले गरेका योगदानको बिश्लेषणात्मक मुल्यांकन . http://ir.nbu.ac.in/handle/123456789/1723 . University of North Bengal . 1999 . 8. ne . Yash . Yanjan.
    18. Web site: Nepali poet Bhanubhakta Acharya's 209th birth anniversary, a peek into the 'Adikavi's' life . 28 February 2023 . ANI News.
    19. Book: Acharya, Madhu Raman . Nepal Culture Shift!: Reinventing Culture in the Himalayan Kingdom . 2002 . Adroit Publishers . 978-81-87392-26-2 . 18.
    20. Book: Korhonen . Teppo . Making and Breaking of Borders: Ethnological Interpretations, Presentations, Representations . Ruotsala . Helena . Uusitalo . Eeva . 2003 . Finnish Literature Society . 978-951-746-467-3 . 172.
    21. Book: Pradhan, Uma . Simultaneous Identities: Language, Education, and Nationalism in Nepal: Language, Education, and Nationalism in Nepal . 3 December 2020 . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-108-48992-8 . 40–60.
    22. Book: Whelpton, John . A History of Nepal . 17 February 2005 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-80470-7 . 160–170.
    23. Web site: In Nepal, Calls Grow for the Restoration of a Hindu State . 1 March 2023 . The Diplomat.
    24. Book: Gautam, Bhim Lal . Language Contact in Nepal: A Study on Language Use and Attitudes . 27 March 2021 . Springer Nature . 978-3-030-68810-3 . 30–40.
    25. Book: Pradhan, Indramani . Parasmani Pradhan . 1997 . Sahitya Akademi . 978-81-260-0366-2 . 12.
    26. Book: Reddy . Sunita . Ethnomedicine and Tribal Healing Practices in India: Challenges and Possibilities of Recognition and Integration . Guite . Nemthianngai . Subedi . Bamdev . 19 February 2023 . Springer Nature . 978-981-19-4286-0 . 150–155.
    27. Book: Samanta, Amiya K. . Gorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic Separatism . 2000 . APH Publishing . 978-81-7648-166-3 . 80–90.
    28. Web site: The Sikkim Official Languages Act, 1977 . Government of Sikkim.
    29. Web site: Struggle for Recognition of Nepali Language: A Brief Outline . 19 October 2022 . Sikkim Express.
    30. Yadav . Raj Narayan . 2 December 2013 . Language Planning and Language Ideology: The Majority and Minority Dichotomy in Nepal . Tribhuvan University Journal . 28 . 1–2 . 197–202 . 10.3126/tuj.v28i1-2.26242 . 2091-0916. free.
    31. Web site: 20 September 2015 . The Constitution of Nepal . 14 December 2022 . Nepal Law Commission . 1 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221101160439/https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Constitution-of-Nepal.pdf . live.
    32. Web site: Nepali becomes one of the official languages of India . 14 December 2022 . nepalilanguage.org . 19 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221019190546/https://nepalilanguage.org/success-stories/nepali-an-official-language-of-india . live.
    33. News: Koirala . Keshav P. . 6 February 2017 . Where in US, elsewhere Bhutanese refugees from Nepal resettled to . The Himalayan Times . 14 December 2022 . 14 December 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221214133735/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/where-in-earth-have-been-bhutanese-refugees-from-nepal-resettled/ . live.
    34. Book: Eur . Far East and Australasia 2003 – Regional surveys of the world . . 2002 . 1-85743-133-2 . 34 . 181–183.
    35. Web site: 2013. Major highlights. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130717170017/http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Major-Finding.pdf. 17 July 2013. 12 September 2013. Central Bureau of Statistics. 4.
    36. Web site: Nepali (npi). 6 October 2016. Ethnologue. 9 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161009110245/http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/npi/. live.
    37. Web site: Language map of Nepal: Interactive (EN) . 4 April 2023 . Translators without Borders.
    38. Web site: Language – India, States And Union Territories (Table C-16) . live . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf . 9 October 2022 . 27 August 2020 . census.gov.in.
    39. Web site: Growth of Scheduled Languages-1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20150220040137/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement7.aspx . 20 February 2015 . 22 February 2015 . Census of India . Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
    40. Web site: Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages – India/ States/ Union Territories-2011 Census . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220314173034/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Part-A.pdf . 14 March 2022 . 12 March 2022 . censusindia.gov.in.
    41. Web site: 2 February 2010. Background Note: Bhutan. 2 October 2010. U.S. Department of State. 12 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211112050953/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35839.htm. live.
    42. Book: Worden. Robert L.. Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies. Savada. Andrea Matles. Federal Research Division, United States Library of Congress. 1991. 978-0-8444-0777-7. 3rd. 424. Chapter 6: Bhutan - Ethnic Groups. 2 October 2010. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/bttoc.html.
    43. Web site: Snapshot of Tasmania . 28 June 2022 . 29 June 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220629022223/https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/snapshot-tas-2021. live . Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 July 2022.
    44. Web site: Snapshot Northern Territory, Housing and Population Census 2021. 28 June 2022. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 July 2022. 21 July 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220721094557/https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/snapshot-nt-2021. live.
    45. Web site: 24 September 2020 . Emerging dynamics among Southeast Asia's Nepali diaspora . 21 March 2023 . New Mandala.
    46. Web site: SBS Australian Census Explorer . 21 March 2023 . SBS.
    47. Web site: Thamatic Report: Ethnic Minorities . 29 September 2018 . bycensus2016.gov.hk/data/16bc-ethnic-minorities.pdf . Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong.
    48. Web site: 8 February 2017 . Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country] ]. 21 March 2023 . Government of Canada.
    49. Web site: Language according to age and sex by region, 1990-2023 . stat.fi . 28 June 2024.
    50. Khatiwada . Rajesh . December 2009 . Nepali . Journal of the International Phonetic Association . 39 . 3 . 373–380 . 10.1017/S0025100309990181 . 0025-1003.
    51. Book: Ten documents from Mustang in the Nepali language (1667-1975 A.D.) . 2001 . VGH Wissenschaftsverlag . 978-3-88280-061-6 . Karmācārya . Mādhavalāla . Results of the Nepal German Project on High Mountain Archaeology . Bonn . Nepal German Project on High Mountain Archaeology.
    52. Web site: Nepali History . 1 August 2024 . lisindia.ciil.org.
    53. Web site: Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Nepali language . 3 February 2021 . ohchr.org . 17 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210517005406/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/nep.pdf . live.