Discrimination against lesbians explained

Discrimination against lesbians, sometimes called lesbophobia, comprises various forms of prejudice and negativity towards lesbians as individuals, as couples, as a social group, or lesbianism in general. Based on the categories of sex, sexual orientation, identity, and gender expression, this negativity encompasses prejudice, discrimination, hatred, and abuse; with attitudes and feelings ranging from disdain to hostility. Lesbophobia is misogyny that intersects with homophobia, and vice versa. It is analogous to gayphobia.

Terminology

The first usage of the term lesbophobia listed in the Oxford English Dictionary is in The Erotic Life of the American Wife (1972), a book by Harper's Bazaar editor Natalie Gittelson.^[1] While some people use only the more general term homophobia to describe this sort of prejudice or behavior, others believe that the terms homosexual and homophobia do not adequately reflect the specific concerns of lesbians, because they experience the double discrimination of both homophobia and sexism.^{[2] [3]}

Extent

The idea that lesbians are dangerous—while heterosexual interactions are natural, normal, and spontaneous—is a common example of beliefs which are lesbophobic. Like homophobia, this belief is classed as heteronormative, as it assumes that heterosexuality is dominant, presumed, and normal, and that other sexual or relationship arrangements are abnormal and unnatural.^[4] A stereotype that has been identified as lesbophobic is that female athletes are always or predominantly lesbians.^{[5] [6]} Lesbians encounter lesbophobic attitudes not only in straight men and women, but from gay men, as well as bisexual people.^[7] Lesbophobia in gay men is regarded as manifest in the perceived subordination of lesbian issues in the campaign for gay rights.^[8]

Lesbians have been stereotyped in often contradictory ways. Kim Emery, in discussing lesbians in the United States during the late-19th century, says:

Anti-lesbian violence

Lesbophobia is sometimes demonstrated through crimes of violence, including corrective rape and even murder. In the late 2000s, several rape/murders of lesbians occurred in South Africa.^{[9] [10]} The victims included Sizakele Sigasa (a lesbian activist living in Soweto) and her partner Salome Masooa, who were raped, tortured, and murdered in an attack that South African lesbian-gay rights organizations, including the umbrella-group Joint Working Group, said were driven by lesbophobia.^{[11] [12]} In the Gauteng township of KwaThema, soccer player Eudy Simelane was gang-raped, beaten and stabbed to death, and LGBT activist Noxolo Nogwaza was raped and stoned before being stabbed to death.^{[13] [14]}

Zanele Muholi, community relations director of a lesbian rights group, reports having recorded 50 rape cases over the past decade involving black lesbians in townships, stating: "The problem is largely that of patriarchy. The men who perpetrate such crimes see rape as curative and as an attempt to show women their place in society."^{[15] [16]}

In its 2019 annual report, SOS Homophobie found that anti-lesbian violence increased 42 percent in France in 2018, with 365 attacks reported.^{[17] [18] [19]}

Lesbian erasure

See main article: Lesbian erasure.

Lesbian erasure references the process of ignoring or discarding the history and problems of lesbians.^[20] The term demonstrates the ways in which the contributions of notable lesbian women are diminished by making their lesbianism no longer a part of their story; some examples being Stormé DeLarverie, Audre Lorde, or Angela Davis.^[21]

Erotic plasticity and lesbianism

Some argue that efforts aimed at females to change their sexual orientation often include rape, and are worse than those aimed at males. Others suggest that the notion of female erotic plasticity is wishful thinking on the part of men who want to have sex with lesbians, and should be criticized for not being objective;^{[22] [23]} while some hypothesize that lesbian relationships exist because of male sexual desires,^[24] and that females are more sexually fluid.^[25]

See also

• Corrective rape
• Compulsory heterosexuality
• Heterosexism
• History of lesbianism
• Lesbianism in erotica
• Sapphobia
• Societal attitudes toward homosexuality
• Violence against LGBT people

Further reading

News, magazine, website

• News: BBC Africa. The footballer raped and murdered for being a lesbian . Modern Ghana. 12 February 2021.
• Brownworth. Victoria A.. Erasing Our Lesbian Dead: Why Don't Murdered Lesbians Make News. Curve. June 11, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150907021337/http://www.curvemag.com/News/Erasing-Our-Lesbian-Dead-510/. September 7, 2015.
• News: Carter. Hana. Rape, murder and abuse: The penalty for being a lesbian today. The Telegraph. 14 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160921092402/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/politics/rape-murder-and-abuse-the-penalty-for-being-a-gay-woman-today/. September 21, 2016.
• Web site: Crawford. Charmaine. "It's a Girl Thing" Problematizing Female Sexuality, Gender and Lesbophobia in Caribbean Culture. Caribbean Region of the International Resource Network. Digital Library of the Caribbean (dLOC). 2012.
• Web site: De Cicco. Gabby. Invisibility Is Not A Shield To Save Us From Lesbophobia. Association for Women's Rights in Development (AWID). 13 March 2015.
• Hunter-Gault. Charlayne. Violated Hopes. The New Yorker. May 21, 2012.
• News: McFadden. David . Gay rights activists in Jamaica confronting sexual violence against lesbians. 660 News. April 27, 2015.
• Web site: Mohan. Megha. The Red Zone: A place where butch lesbians live in fear. BBC News. 24 June 2019.
• News: Phadke. Mithila. Lesbophobia makes gay women a minority among minorities. The Times of India. August 3, 2013.
• News: Sege. Adam. Huppke. Rex W.. Hate crime draws attention to violence against lesbians, gays. Chicago Tribune. 12 July 2013.
• News: Williams. Rhiannon. Lesbophobia: why does society struggle to believe women can be lesbians?. The Telegraph. 18 November 2013.
• News: Williamson. Harriet. Lesbophobia is alive and well. The Independent. 13 December 2013.

Books

• Book: Herek. Gregory M.. Berrill. Kevin T.. Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men. 1992. 1st. SAGE Publications. 0-8039-4541-8.
• Book: Morris. Bonnie J.. The Disappearing L: Erasure of Lesbian Spaces and Culture. 2016. 1st. SUNY Press. 978-1-4384-6177-9.

Academia

• Dopler. Tania Sharp. Lesbophobia in Feminist Organizations: An Examination of the Effect of Organizational Structure and Sociopolitical Context on the Expression of Lesbophobia. Carleton University. 1 December 1996.
• Forbes. Susan L.. Stevens. Diane E.. Lathrop. Anna H.. A Pervasive Silence: Lesbophobia and Team Cohesion in Sport. Canadian Woman Studies. 2002. 21. 3. 32–35. Inanna Publications. 0713-3235. 09951504.
• HaleyNelson. Chelsea. Sexualized Violence Against Lesbians. Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice. 2005. 17. 2–3. 163–80. 10.1080/14631370500332882. 143789931. 1040-2659.
• Judge. Melanie. November 2015. Violence against lesbians and (IM) possibilities for identity and politics. PhD. University of the Western Cape.
• Peel. Elizabeth. I. Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men: Decision- Making in Reporting and Not Reporting Crime. . 1999. 9. 2. 161–167. 10.1177/0959353599009002008. 144982158. 0959-3535.
• Waite. Helen. Old lesbians: Gendered histories and persistent challenges. Australasian Journal on Ageing. October 2015. 34. S2. 8–13. Wiley. 1741-6612. 10.1111/ajag.12272. 26525439. free.

External links

• Lesbophobia definition by the European Institute for Gender Equality
• Violence against lesbians: education, research, public campaigns (Project Number: 2000-021-W). DAPHNE project. European Commission, 2000.
• Violence Against Lesbians: Education – Research – Public Relation (Final Report). DAPHNE Programme. European Commission, 31 December 2001.
• Lesbians visibility and lesbophobia in France . SOS Homophobie, 2014.
• Breaking the Silence: Criminalisation of Lesbians and Bisexual Women and its Impacts. Human Dignity Trust, May 2016.
• In Some Countries, Being Gay Or Lesbian Can Land You In Prison...Or Worse. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 2020.

Notes and References

1. Book: Ogden, Annegret S.. The Great American Housewife: From Helpmate to Wage Earner, 1776–1986. 1986. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut. 206. 0-313-24752-8.
2. Web site: 18 December 2006 . What is "Lesbophobia"? . ILGA . 7 August 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120220192524/http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/997 . 20 February 2012 . dead . dmy-all .
3. News: Czyzselska. Jane. Lesbophobia is homophobia with a side-order of sexism. The Guardian. 9 July 2013. 2 February 2016.
4. Jillian Todd Weiss, "The Gender Caste System – Identity, Privacy, and Heteronormativity" 10 Law & Sexuality 123 (Tulane Law School, 2001)
5. Peper, Karen, "Female athlete=Lesbian: a complex myth constructed from gender role expectations and lesbiphobia", Queer words, queer images: communications and the construction of homosexuality, pages 193–208 (New York University Press, 1994)
6. Darcy Plymire and Pamela Forman, "Breaking the Silence: Lesbian Fans, the Internet, and the Sexual Politics of Women's Sport", International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, pages 1566–1768 (Springer Netherlands, April 2000)
7. Megan Radclyffe, Lesbophobia!: Gay Men and Misogyny (Continuum, October 2005)
8. Raizada . Kristen . An Interview with the Guerrilla Girls, Dyke Action Machine (DAM!), and the Toxic Titties . . 2007 . 19 . 1 . 39–58 . 10.2979/NWS.2007.19.1.39 . 14 May 2024 . 4317230 . 1040-0656.
9. News: Lesbian killers in South Africa get 18-year jail terms . . 1 February 2012 . 22 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140404114413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-16835653 . 4 April 2014.
10. Web site: Pithouse . Richard . Only Protected on Paper . The South African Civil Society Information Service . 29 March 2011 . 22 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141218131905/http://sacsis.org.za/site/article/644.1 . 18 December 2014 . dead.
11. Web site: Ndaba . Baldwin . 'Hate crime' against lesbians slated . IOL News . July 13, 2007 . 22 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140329025903/http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/hate-crime-against-lesbians-slated-1.361821 . 29 March 2014 . live.
12. News: Bridgland. Fred. Lesbian couple killed in execution-style murder: Hate crimes increase despite equal rights law. 11 August 2007. Sunday Herald. 14 July 2007. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20070717032359/http://www.sundayherald.com/international/shinternational/display.var.1546316.0.0.php. 17 July 2007. dmy-all.
13. News: Kelly . Annie . Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks . The Guardian . 22 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140621232447/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/12/eudy-simelane-corrective-rape-south-africa . 21 June 2014 . live .
14. News: South Africa killing of lesbian Nogwaza 'a hate crime' . 3 May 2011 . BBC News . 28 November 2012 . 28 January 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120128183653/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13265300 . live .
15. News: Cogswell . Kelly Jean . Cut It Off – And Stop AIDS . 11 August 2007 . Gay City News . 26 July 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200546/http://www.gaycitynews.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=18630253&BRD=2729&PAG=461&dept_id=585504&rfi=6 . 27 September 2007 . dead .
16. News: S. Africa gangs using rape to 'cure' lesbians. 13 March 2009. MSN. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20090315234648/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29676829. 15 March 2009.
17. Web site: Rapport sur l'homophobie 2019 : 2018, une année noire pour les personnes LGBT. SOS Homophobie. fr. May 14, 2019. 14 August 2019. Report on Homophobia 2019: 2018, a dark year for LGBT people.
18. Web site: Insultes, coups de poing, interdiction d'entrer : des lesbiennes racontent les agressions qu'elles ont subies. France Inter. fr. 14 May 2019. 14 August 2019. Insults, punches, prohibition to enter: lesbians tell the assaults they have suffered.
19. Web site: Wilkins. Anna. Anti-Lesbian Hate Crimes Are On The Rise. Gentside. August 13, 2019. 14 August 2019.
20. Web site: Morris . Bonnie J. . Dyke Culture and the Disappearing L . . December 22, 2016 . 20 March 2024 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240320160643/https://slate.com/human-interest/2016/12/disappearing-lesbians-and-the-need-to-preserve-dyke-culture.html . 20 March 2024.
21. News: Fleming . Pippa . The gender-identity movement undermines lesbians . . 3 July 2018 . 20 March 2024 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240320162508/https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/07/03/the-gender-identity-movement-undermines-lesbians . 20 March 2024 .
22. Book: Clarke. Victoria. Peel. Elizabeth. Out in Psychology: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Queer Perspectives. 2007. 1st. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester, West Sussex, England. 978-0470012871.
23. Book: Radclyffe. Megan . Lesbophobia: Gay Men and Misogyny . 1995 . . 231667896 . 978-0304333264.
24. Apostolou . Menelaos . Shialos . Marios . Khalil . Michalis . Paschali . Vana . The evolution of female same-sex attraction: The male choice hypothesis . . 2017 . 116 . 372–378 . 10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.020 . 0191-8869.
25. Baumeister . Roy F. . Gender Differences in Erotic Plasticity: The Female Sex Drive as Socially Flexible and Responsive . . 2000 . 126 . 3 . 347–374 . 10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.347 . 10825779 . 05019164 . 0033-2909.