Lemon Explained

The lemon (Citrus × limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar, and China.[1]

The tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, which has both culinary and cleaning uses.[1] The pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5–6% citric acid, with a pH of around 2.2,[2] giving it a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice, derived from the citric acid, makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods[3] such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie.

Description

The lemon tree produces an ellipsoidal yellow fruit.

Chemistry

Lemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins.[4] Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47 g/L), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice.[5]

Taxonomy

The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in northeast India.[1] A genomic study of the lemon indicated it was a hybrid between bitter orange (sour orange) and citron.[6] [7]

The origin of the word lemon may be Middle Eastern.[1] The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a generic term for citrus fruit, which is a cognate of Sanskrit (nimbū, 'lime').[8]

Varieties

The 'Bonnie Brae' is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless.[9] These are mostly grown in San Diego County, US.[10]

The 'Eureka' grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as "Four Seasons" (Quatre Saisons) because of its ability to produce fruit and flowers together throughout the year. This variety is also available as a plant for domestic customers.[11] There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon with a green and yellow variegated outer skin.[12]

The Lisbon lemon is very similar to the Eureka and is the other common supermarket lemon. It is smoother than the Eureka, has thinner skin, and has fewer or no seeds. It generally produces more juice than the Eureka.[13] [14]

The 'Femminello St. Teresa', or 'Sorrento'[15] originates in Italy. This fruit's zest is high in lemon oils. It is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello.

The 'Yen Ben' is an Australasian cultivar.[16]

Cultivation

History

Lemons are supposed to have entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, during the time of Ancient Rome. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD. The lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed widely throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. An article on Lemon and lime tree cultivation in Andalusia, Spain, is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[17]

The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century. The lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493, when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds. It was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida and California.

In 1747, James Lind's experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known as an important dietary ingredient.[18]

Propagation

Lemon (and lime) production, 2022

millions of tonnes

Country2022
3.8
3.1
2.6
1.8
1.6
1.3
World 21.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations.[19]
Lemons need a minimum temperature of around 7C, so they are not hardy year-round in temperate climates, but become hardier as they mature.[20] Citrus require minimal pruning by trimming overcrowded branches, with the tallest branch cut back to encourage bushy growth. Throughout summer, pinching back tips of the most vigorous growth assures more abundant canopy development. As mature plants may produce unwanted, fast-growing shoots (called "water shoots"), these are removed from the main branches at the bottom or middle of the plant.

There is reputed merit in the tradition of urinating near a lemon tree.[21] [22]

In cultivation in the UK, the cultivars "Meyer"[23] and "Variegata"[24] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).[25]

Production

In 2022, world production of lemons (combined with limes for reporting) was 22 million tonnes led by India with 18% of the total. Mexico and China were major secondary producers (table).

Uses

Nutrition

Lemon is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 64% of the Daily Value in a 100 g reference amount (table). Other essential nutrients are low in content.

Culinary

Lemon juice, rind, and peel are used in a wide variety of foods and drinks. The whole lemon is used to make marmalade, lemon curd and lemon liqueur. Lemon slices and lemon rind are used as a garnish for food and drinks. Lemon zest, the grated outer rind of the fruit, is used to add flavor to baked goods, puddings, rice, and other dishes.

Juice

Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing it.[26] In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.

Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.

Peel

In Morocco, lemons are preserved in jars or barrels of salt. The salt penetrates the peel and rind, softening them, and curing them so that they last almost indefinitely.[27] The preserved lemon is used in a wide variety of dishes. Preserved lemons can also be found in Sicilian, Italian, Greek, and French dishes.

The peel can be used in the manufacture of pectin, a polysaccharide used as a gelling agent and stabilizer in food and other products.[28]

Oil

Lemon oil is extracted from oil-containing cells in the skin. A machine breaks up the cells and uses a water spray to flush off the oil. The oil–water mixture is then filtered and separated by centrifugation.

Leaves

The leaves of the lemon tree are used to make a tea and for preparing cooked meats and seafoods.

Other uses

Industrial

Lemons were the primary commercial source of citric acid before the development of fermentation-based processes.[29]

Aroma

Lemon oil may be used in aromatherapy. Lemon oil aroma does not influence the human immune system,[30] but may contribute to relaxation.[31]

Other

One educational science experiment involves attaching electrodes to a lemon and using it as a battery to produce electricity. Although very low power, several lemon batteries can power a small digital watch.[32] These experiments also work with other fruits and vegetables.

Lemon juice may be used as a simple invisible ink, developed by heat.[33]

Lemon juice can be used to increase the blonde colour of hair, acting as a natural highlight after the moistened hair is exposed to sunlight. This is due to the citric acid that acts as bleach.[34] [35]

Other citrus called "lemons"

In culture

In India, a lemon may be ritually encircled around a person due to the belief that it would repel negative energies or ward off the evil eye, called nazar or drishti.[38] It is also a common practice for owners of a new car to drive over four lemons, one under each wheel, crushing them during their first drive. This is believed to protect the driver from accidents.[39]

Hindu deities are sometimes depicted with lemons in their iconography, representing the attribute of wealth or abundance.[40]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: 1987. 160–168. Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates. Julia F. Morton. Purdue University. December 18, 2007. November 26, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191126031859/https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lemon.html#Description. live.
  2. Book: Chemistry: Structure and Dynamics . 481 . James N. Spencer . George M. Bodner . Lyman H. Rickard . John Wiley & Sons . 2010 . 9780470920930 . August 22, 2023 . October 4, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231004113940/https://books.google.com/books?id=iCh-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA481 . live .
  3. Book: Comprehensive Natural Products II: Chemistry and Biology . Elsevier . 2010 . 9780080453828 . August 22, 2023 . October 4, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231004113941/https://books.google.com/books?id=pkzx2TeYYT8C&pg=RA3-PA663 . live .
  4. Rauf A, Uddin G, Ali J . 2014 . Phytochemical analysis and radical scavenging profile of juices of Citrus sinensis, Citrus aurantifolia, and Citrus limonum . Org Med Chem Lett . 4 . 5 . 10.1186/2191-2858-4-5 . 4091952 . 25024932 . free . 2191-2858 .
  5. Penniston KL, Nakada SY, Holmes RP, Assimos DG . 2008 . Quantitative Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit Juice Products . Journal of Endourology . 22 . 3 . 567–570 . 10.1089/end.2007.0304 . 2637791 . 18290732.
  6. Gulsen, O.. M. L. Roose. 2001. Lemons: Diversity and Relationships with Selected Citrus Genotypes as Measured with Nuclear Genome Markers. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 126. 3. 309–317. 10.21273/JASHS.126.3.309. free.
  7. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110118101600.htm Genetic origin of cultivated citrus determined: Researchers find evidence of origins of orange, lime, lemon, grapefruit, other citrus species"
  8. Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. May 13, 2012. August 6, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110806050048/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=lemon. live.
  9. Book: Spalding, William A. . The orange: its culture in California . 1885 . Press and Horticulturist Steam Print . Riverside, California . 88 . Bonnie Brae lemon. . March 2, 2012 .
  10. Book: Carque, Otto . Rational Diet: An Advanced Treatise on the Food Question . 1923 . 2006 . . Los Angeles, California . 978-1-4286-4244-7 . 195 . March 2, 2012 . March 14, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240314054303/https://books.google.com/books?id=zDjmYpZGh_4C&q=Bonnie%20Brae%20lemon&pg=PA195 . live .
  11. News: Ursula . Buchan . Kitchen garden: lemon tree . The Daily Telegraph . January 22, 2005 . January 24, 2014 . London . March 13, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140313175245/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/3325753/Kitchen-garden-lemon-tree.html . live .
  12. http://www.citrusvariety.ucr.edu/citrus/variegatedpink.html Vaiegated pink
  13. Web site: frostlisbon. 2020-09-27. citrusvariety.ucr.edu. November 6, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106131123/https://citrusvariety.ucr.edu/citrus/frostlisbon.html. live.
  14. Web site: says. 3 Easy Tips: How to Plant Lemon Seeds at Home Indoors or Outdoors. 2007-02-01. Eureka Lemon and Lisbon Lemon: Kitchen Basics. 2020-09-27. Harvest to Table. en-US. November 6, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201106014024/https://harvesttotable.com/eureka_lemon_and_lisbon_lemon/. live.
  15. News: Taste of a thousand lemons . . September 8, 2004 . November 21, 2011 . December 22, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131222145004/http://www.latimes.com/features/la-fo-limoncello8sep08,0,771590.story . live .
  16. Web site: New Zealand Citrus . ceventura.ucdavis.edu . June 13, 2010 . June 10, 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100610054722/http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/ben/citrus/misc/new_zealand.htm . dead .
  17. Book: Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá . Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) . A. Franck . 1864 . Paris . 300–301 (ch. 7 - Article 32) . fr . J.-J. Clement-Mullet . 780050566 . Ibn al-'Awwam. (pp. 300–301 (Article XXXII)
  18. Book: James Lind . A treatise on the scurvy. Second edition. . A. Millar . 1757 . London.
  19. Web site: World production of lemons and limes in 2022; Crops/Regions/World/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2024. 23 March 2024.
  20. Web site: Citrus. Royal Horticultural Society. 2017. 19 April 2017. April 20, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170420235304/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/fruit/citrus. live.
  21. Book: Capomolla . Fabian . Pember . Matthew . Lemon . The Little Veggie Patch Co. . Sydney, New South Wales . Plum . 2011 . 129 . 9781742628417 . 2020-04-27 . Urinating around a lemon tree provides a tonic of water, salt and minerals, much like that of an organic fertiliser [...]. . March 14, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240314054347/https://books.google.com/books?id=1w2jBgAAQBAJ . live .
  22. Book: Capomolla . Fabian . Growing Food the Italian Way . The Hungry Gardener . Plum . 2017 . 168 . 9781760554903 . 2020-04-27 . Yes, it is true - urinating on the soil around a lemon tree is beneficial to the plant. Just don't overdo it, as that can be detrimental. . March 14, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240314054242/https://books.google.com/books?id=J5MtDwAAQBAJ . live .
  23. Web site: RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Meyer'. 30 January 2018. January 4, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200104072437/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/29386/i-Citrus-i-%C3%97-i-limon-i-Meyer-(F)/Details. live.
  24. Web site: RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Variegata'. 30 January 2018. December 30, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191230095752/https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/90013/i-Citrus-i-%C3%97-i-limon-i-Variegata-(F-v)/Details. live.
  25. Web site: AGM Plants - Ornamental . July 2017 . 20 . Royal Horticultural Society . 24 January 2018 . January 5, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180105180412/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf . live .
  26. Web site: Fruit enzymes tenderise meat . 2020-05-14 . Science Learning Hub . en . May 23, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200523160625/https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1945-fruit-enzymes-tenderise-meat . live .
  27. Web site: Moskin . Julia . Preserved Lemons Recipe . 2020-05-14 . NYT Cooking . en-US . May 13, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200513224940/https://cooking.nytimes.com/recipes/1016212-preserved-lemons . live .
  28. Dimopoulou . Maria . Alba . Katerina . Campbell . Grant . Kontogiorgos . Vassilis . 2019-11-01 . Pectin recovery and characterization from lemon juice waste streams . Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture . 99 . 14 . 6191–6198 . 2019JSFA...99.6191D . 10.1002/jsfa.9891 . 1097-0010 . 31250441 . 195760607.
  29. Book: M. Hofrichter . Industrial Applications . Springer . 2010 . 978-3-642-11458-8 . 224.
  30. Kiecolt-Glaser . J. K. . Graham . J. E. . Malarkey . W. B. . Porter . K . Lemeshow . S . Glaser . R . 2008 . Olfactory influences on mood and autonomic, endocrine, and immune function . Psychoneuroendocrinology . 33 . 3 . 328–39 . 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.11.015 . 2278291 . 18178322.
  31. Cooke . B . Ernst . E . 2000 . Aromatherapy: A systematic review . British Journal of General Practice . 50 . 455 . 493–6 . 1313734 . 10962794.
  32. Web site: Lemon Power . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20170519151259/http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/projects/lemon.html . May 19, 2017 . December 7, 2014 . California Energy Commission.
  33. Web site: Mirsky . Steve . April 20, 2010 . Invisible Ink and More: The Science of Spying in the Revolutionary War . October 15, 2016 . Scientific American . October 21, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161021094951/https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/invisible-ink-and-other-science-of-10-04-20/ . live .
  34. Web site: 2020 . Here's how to lighten your hair at home with lemon juice (it actually works) . 16 Sep 2020 . Glamour UK . Bianca London . September 28, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200928151522/https://www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/article/lemon-juice-in-hair . live .
  35. Web site: 2020 . Does lemon juice really lighten hair? . 18 Sep 2020 . Klorane Laboratories . January 22, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220122155915/https://www.klorane.com/uk-en/feelgoodactgood/does-lemon-juice-really-lighten-hair . live .
  36. Diversity of Citrus depressa Hayata (Shiikuwasha) revealed by DNA analysis. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 64. 4. 805–814. 10.1007/s10722-016-0403-2. 2017. Yamamoto. Masashi. Takakura. Akiko. Tanabe. Aika. Teramoto. Sayuri. Kita. Masayuki. 35979614.
  37. Phylogenetic origin of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers . Curk . Franck . Ollitrault . Frédérique . Garcia-Lor . Andres . Luro . François . Navarro . Luis . Ollitrault . Patrick . Annals of Botany . 11 . 565–583 . 2016 . 4 . 10.1093/aob/mcw005 . 4817432 . 26944784.
  38. Book: Amariglio, Jack . Cullenberg, Stephen E . Ruccio, David F . Post-Modernism, Economics and Knowledge . 2013 . Routledge . 978-1-134-83668-0 . 217–.
  39. Book: Leslie, Julia . Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women . 1992 . Motilal Banarsidass Publ. . 978-81-208-1036-5 . 116 . en.
  40. Book: Pal . Pratapaditya . Divine Images, Human Visions: The Max Tanenbaum Collection of South Asian and Himalayan Art in the National Gallery of Canada . Canada . National Gallery of . Arts (Firm) . Bayeux . 1997 . National Gallery of Canada . 978-1-896209-05-0 . 41 . en.

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