From a semantic perspective, a tense is a temporal circumstance in which an event takes place relative to a given point in time.It is absolute (primary) if it relates the represented event to the time of the speech event and it is relative if it relates the represented event to the time of another event in the context of discourse.In turn, a relative tense may be “relative to absolute” (secondary) if it relates the represented event to the primary tense. Read more about possible tenses in the article on grammatical tense.
In indicative clauses, Latin has three primary tenses and three series of secondary tenses. The primary tenses are the future Latin: agam ('I will do'), the present Latin: agō ('I am doing'), and the past Latin: ēgī ('I did'). The series of secondary tenses are: 1) the secondary future series Latin: āctūrus erō ('I will be about to do'), Latin: āctūrus sum ('I am about to do'), and Latin: āctūrus eram ('I was about to do'); 2) the secondary present series Latin: agam ('I will be doing'), Latin: agō ('I am doing'), and Latin: agēbam ('I was doing'); and 3) the secondary past series Latin: ēgerō ('I will have done'), Latin: ēgī ('I have done'), and Latin: ēgeram ('I had done').
This article covers only free indicative clauses for what took place, is taking place, or will take place. For bound indicative clauses, visit Latin tenses in relative clauses and Latin tenses in dependent clauses. For indications of frequency, possibility, volition and obligation, visit the article on Latin tenses with modality. For commands, see Latin tenses in commands.
In Latin, a process may have one of three primary tenses: future, present and past. Each primary tense is described in a separate section below.
The primary future is the future relative to the time of speech. For most verbs, the future is usually construed by a 'future indicative' verb as in Latin: faciam ('I will do'). In Early Latin, there was the 'sigmatic future indicative' Latin: faxō (also 'I will do').
For verbs of recalling such as Latin: meminī ('I remember'), Latin: ōdī ('I hate'), Latin: nōvī ('I know') and some verbs of states such as Latin: mortuus est ('is dead') and Latin: dīvīsum est ('is divided'), inflections and periphrases that usually construe a past-in-future as in Latin: agerō ('I will have done') have their meanings reduced to a primary future: there is Latin: meminerō ('I will remember') evolved from Latin: meminerō ('I will have memorized') and there is Latin: mortuus erit for either the future state ('he will be dead') or the past-in-future event Latin: mortuus erit ('he will have died').
| Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'future indicative ' | Latin: īnsequentī librō '''explicābō''' (Vitruvius)[1] | 'I will explain this in the next book' | will do, do in English |
| 'sigmatic future indicative' | Latin: '''faxō''' haud inultus prandium comēderīs (Plautus)[2] | 'I will make sure you haven't eaten that lunch unpunished' | |
| 'future perfect indicative' | Latin: '''meminerō''', dē istōc quiētus estō (Plautus)[3] | 'I shall remember, don't worry about that' |
The primary present is the present relative to the time of speech. Most often the present tense is construed by a 'present indicative' verb. For verbs of recalling such as Latin: meminī ('I remember'), Latin: ōdī ('I hate'), Latin: nōvī ('I know') and verbs of resulting states such as Latin: mortuus est ('is dead') and Latin: dīvīsum est ('is divided'), inflections and periphrases that usually construe a past-in-present as in Latin: ēgī ('I have done') have their meanings reduced to a primary present: there is Latin: meminī ('I remember') evolved from Latin: meminī ('I have memorized') and there is Latin: mortuus est for either a present state ('he is dead') or a past-in-present event ('he has died').
Similarly, the 'present indicative' auxiliary in "habeō" perfect periphrasis as in Latin: habeō subōrnātum may represent either a present ownership of placed objects ('I own that clock placed over there') or the placement of owned objects with focus on the placement ('my clock is placed over there'). In contrast, the 'present indicative' in "teneō" perfect periphrasis ('hold' or 'keep') represents the process of actively keeping an obeject in a given state while one speaks.
| Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'present indicative' | Latin: senātus haec '''intellegit'''; cōnsul '''videt'''; hic tamen '''vīvit''' (Cicero)[4] | 'the Senate understands this; the Consul sees it; yet this man is alive' | do, are doing, have done, have been doing in English | |
| 'perfect indicative' | Latin: '''meminī''' mē adesse (Cicero)[5] | 'I remember being present' | ||
| 'present indicative auxiliary in "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: passer '''mortuus est''' meae puellae (Catullus)[6] | 'my girlfriend's pet sparrow is dead | ||
| 'present indicative auxiliary in "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: Horolōgium in triclīniō et bucinātōrem '''habet subōrnātum''', ut subinde sciat quantum dē vītā perdiderit! (Petronius)[7] | 'He has a clock and a horn set up in the triclinium to remember from time to time how much of his life he spent thus far' | have... placed in English | |
| 'present indicative auxiliary in "teneō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: populī Rōmānī exercitus Cn. Pompeium circumsedet, fossā et vallō '''saeptum tenet''', fugā prohibet (Cicero)[8] | 'an army of the Roman people is besieging Gnaeus Pompey, and is keeping him fenced in with a ditch and wall, and preventing him from fleeing' | is keeping... in English |
The primary past is the past relative to the time of speech. In biographies, past events are usually represented by 'perfect indicative' verbs. In contrast, in narrative prose and poetry, past events are most often represented by 'present indicative' verbs as if these events were taking place at the time of narration. In particular, past speech events are often represented by 'present indicative' verbs when reporting what other people said: e.g. Latin: fidem dant ('they gave a pledge') or Latin: ōrant ('they begged'). More than half the 'present indicative' verbs for past events in Caesar's books are of this kind.
However, in recounts of events long past at the time of narration, the 'imperfect indicative' is used instead of 'perfect indicative' or 'present indicative' as if these events were being vividly remembered by a story-internal observer in distress. As for word order, in Caesar's books, when a verb for a past event is placed initially in the sentence, as in the example below (Latin: videt imminēre hostēs), it is very frequently 'present indicative'.
For verbs of recalling such as Latin: meminī ('I remember'), Latin: ōdī ('I hate'), Latin: nōvī ('I know') and verbs of resulting states such as Latin: mortuus est ('is dead') and Latin: dīvīsum est ('is divided'), inflections and periphrases that usually construe a past-in-past as in Latin: ēgeram ('I had done') have their meanings reduced to a primary past: there is Latin: meminī ('I remembered') evolved from Latin: meminī ('I had memorized') and there is Latin: mortuus erat for the past state ('he was dead') and the past-in-past event ('he had died').
In some contexts, the '"habeō" perfect periphrasis with present indicative auxiliary' is often interchangeable with 'perfect indicative' verbs. In later Latin the compound past with Latin: habeō became progressively more common, though still less common than the simple past with a 'perfect indicative' verb.
| Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'perfect indicative' | Latin: '''vēnī, vīdī, vīcī''' (Suetonius)[9] | 'I came, I saw, I conquered' | did in English |
| 'present indicative' | Latin: '''videt''' imminēre hostēs ... '''capit''' arma ā proximīs ... (Caesar)[10] | 'he saw the enemy coming ... he seized weapons from those nearby ...' | |
| 'imperfect indicative' | Latin: '''caedēbātur''' virgīs in mediō forō Messanae civis rōmānus... (Cicero)[11] | 'A Roman citizen was beaten by rods in the center of Messana's main square...' | |
| 'pluperfect indicative' | Latin: '''meminerant''' ad Alesiam magnam sē inopiam perpessōs (Caesar)[12] | 'they remembered how they had put up with a great shortage at Alesia' | |
| 'present indicative auxiliary in "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: ubī '''occīsus est''' Sex. Rōscius? – Rōmae (Cicero)[13] | 'where was Sextus Roscius murdered? – in Rome' |
In Latin, represented events and states may be related to the time of another event in discourse, which in turn has a primary tense. Such events are said to have a secondary tense, of which there are three in Latin: namely, secondary future, secondary present and secondary past, each of which is described in a separate section below.
The secondary future is the future relative to a primary tense, which can be future, present, or past. Most often, the secondary future is realized by the periphrasis facturus + erō, sum, eram, fuī.
If applied to actions, the compound 'future in present' (e.g. Latin: factūrus sum, ‘am [going] to do’) represents a person's action that is future at an ongoing process other than the speech event such as tē absente ("while you are absent"). Similarly, the compound 'future in future' (e.g. Latin: factūrus erō, 'I will do') represents a person's action that will happen after a given future event. In contrast, the future periphrasis with an ‘imperfect indicative’ auxiliary (e.g. Latin: factūrus eram, ‘was about to do’) represents a person’s past plan of action. Although less common than the future periphrases with Latin: eram, future periphrases with a ‘perfect indicative’ auxiliary such as Latin: fuī are also found.
| Meaning | Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| future in future | 'future indicative auxiliary in future periphrasis' | Latin: tu tamen sī quid cum Sīliō, vel illō ipsō diē quō ad Siccam '''ventūrus erō''', certiōrem mē velim faciās (Cicero)[14] | 'but if you come to any arrangement with Silius, even if it is on the very day I am on my way to Sicca's house, please let me know' | is planning / about to do in English |
| future in present | 'present indicative auxiliary in future periphrasis' | Latin: Paulla Valeria ... '''nūptūra est''' D. Brūtō [tē absente]. (Cicero)[15] | [while you are away] 'Paulla Valeria... is planning to marry Decimus Brutus' | |
| future in past | 'imperfect indicative auxiliary in future periphrasis' | Latin: posterō diē, cum ab eō digressus essem..., ille... in Italiam versus '''nāvigātūrus erat''' (Servius to Cicero)[16] | 'on the next day, when I left him..., he was going to sail... to Italy' | was going / about to do in English |
| 'perfect indicative auxiliary in future periphrasis' | Latin: quō diē repulsus est, lūsit, quā nocte '''peritūrus fuit''', lēgit (Seneca)[17] | 'on the day Cato was defeated in the election, he played; on the night he was about to die, he read' | ||
The secondary present is the present relative to a primary tense, which can be future, present or past. From these, 'present in present' is the rarest one. Theare are two secondary presents in Latin: the simple secondary present is realised by verbs with īnfectum aspect such as faciam, faciō, faciēbam and the compound secondary present is realised by the periphrasis facere + coeperō, coepī, coeperam. The verb group is often accompanied by spatial and temporal adjuncts such as Latin: ibī 'there', Latin: tum 'then', and Latin: eō tempore 'at that moment'.
| Meaning | Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| present in future | 'future indicative' | Latin: ibī cōtīdiē tuās litterās '''exspectābō''' (Cicero)[18] | 'There, I shall be waiting for your letters every day' | will/shall be doing in English |
| 'future perfect indicative auxiliary in "coepī" present periphrasis' | Latin: Nam cum '''coeperīs''' deae '''servīre''', tunc magis sentiēs frūctum tuae lībertātis. (Apuleius)[19] | 'For it is when you are serving the goddess that you will feel the fruit of your freedom.' | am doing in English | |
| present in present | 'present indicative' | am doing in English | ||
| Latin: rēs hodiē minor '''est''' here quam fuit (Juvenal)[20] | 'resources are scarcer today than they used to be yesterday' | |||
| 'perfect indicative auxiliary in "coepī" present periphrasis' | Latin: Sub Tiberiō et Gaiō et Claudiō ūnīus familiae quasi hērēditās fuimus: locō lībertātis erit quod '''ēligī coepimus'''. (Tacitus)[21] | 'Under Tiberius, Gaius and Claudius we were like the property of a single family: [in the new regime] it should work as a substitute for freedom that we are now being selected.' | ||
| present in past | 'imperfect indicative' | Latin: ex equō tum forte Mettius '''pugnābat''' (Livy)[22] | 'at that time (the time of his death) Mettius was fighting on horseback' | was doing in English |
| 'pluperfect indicative auxiliary in "coepī" present periphrasis' | Latin: Sed, quod '''coeperam dīcere''', postquam lupus factus est, ululāre coepit et in silvās fūgit. (Petronius)[23] | 'But, as I was saying, once he turned into a wolf, he began to howl and ran away into the woods.' |
The secondary past is the past relative to a primary tense, which can be future, present or past. There are three secondary pasts in Latin: 1. the simple secondary past is realised by verbs with perfectum aspect such as fēcerō, fēcī, fēceram; 2. the compound secondary past with "sum" is realised by the periphrasis factus + ero, sum, eram or fuī; and 3. the compound secondary past with "habeō" is realised by the periphrasis factum + habēbō, habeō, habēbam or habuī. In the secondary past, imperfect indicative auxiliaries such as eram and habēbam are more frequent than their perfect indicative counterparts such as fuī and habuī.
| Meaning | Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| past in future | 'future perfect indicative' | Latin: 'dēsilite', inquit, 'mīlitēs, nisī vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere; egō certē meum reī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium '''praestiterō''' (Caesar)[24] | 'Jump down, soldiers,' he said, 'unless you want to betray the eagle to the enemy. I for my part will certainly have done my own duty for the republic and the commander!' | will have done or have done in English |
| 'future indicative of "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: ego sī cum Antoniō '''locūtus erō''', scrībam ad tē quid āctum sit. (Cicero)[25] | 'Once I have talked to Antony, I will let you know what happened.' | ||
| 'future indicative of "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: sed iam dē epistulīs satis '''dictum habēbō''', sī hoc ūnum addiderō (Apuleius)[26] | 'but I will have said enough about the letters if I add this one thing' | ||
| past in present | 'perfect indicative' | Latin: et habet unde: ... '''dēcessit''' illīus pater (Petronius)[27] | 'and he has enough money: ... his father has died' | have done in English |
| 'present indicative of "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: et habet unde: '''relictum est''' illī sestertium trecentiēs (Petronius)[28] | 'and he has enough money: he has inherited thirty million' | ||
| 'present indicative of "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: unde ulteriōrem mēnsūram inhabitābilis plagae multō esse majōrem arbitror, nam et ā Germānia inmēnsās insulās nōn prīdem conpertās '''cognitum habeō'''. (Gaius Plinius Secundus)[29] | 'so I think the remaining extension of the inhabitable beaches is much larger, for I have learned that large islands had been discovered by the Germans not long ago.' | ||
| past in past | 'pluperfect indicative' | Latin: eādem quā '''vēnerat''' viā Elatīam rediit (Livy)[30] | 'he returned to Elatia by the same way he had come' | had done in English |
| 'imperfect indicative of "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: prīdiē quam ego Athēnās vēnī Mytilēnās '''profectus erat''' (Cicero)[31] | 'on the day before I arrived in Athens he had departed for Mytilene' | ||
| 'perfect indicative of "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: prior '''nātus fuit''' Sophoclēs quam Eurīpidēs (nātus est) (Gellius)[32] | 'Sophocles had been born earlier than Euripides (was born)' | ||
| 'imperfect indicative of "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: Caesar equitātum omnem quem ex omnī prōvinciā '''coāctum habēbat''' praemittit (Caesar)[33] | 'Caesar sent ahead all the cavalry which he had gathered together from the whole province' | ||
| 'perfect indicative of "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: in montibus castra '''habuit posita''' Pompeius in cōnspectū utrōrumque oppidōrum (Caesar)[34] | 'Pompeius had placed a camp in the mountains within sight of both towns' |
If the secondary past applies to an event that had happened prior to a past point in time, the tertiary past applies to a third event that had happened earlier than that. The tertiary past is realised by a 'pluperfect indicative' auxiliary in either the "sum" perfect periphrasis or the "habeō" perfect periphrasis. Both the compound tertiary past with Latin: fueram and the compound tertiary past with Latin: habueram are uncommon tenses.
| Meaning | Paradigm | Latin Example | English translation | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| past in past in past | 'pluperfect indicative auxiliary in the "sum" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: Erat summa inopia pabulī, adeo ut foliīs ex arboribus strictīs et tenerīs harundinum radicibus contūsīs equōs alērent, frūmenta enim, quae '''fuerant''' intrā mūnītiōnēs '''sata''', consūmpserant (Caesar)[35] | 'There was a great scarcity of fodder, so much so that they cut leaves from the trees, pulled off soft roots of thorn trees and fed the horses with them, for by this time the corn which had earlier been sown inside the defence walls had been used up | had done earlier in English |
| 'pluperfect indicative auxiliary in "habeō" perfect periphrasis' | Latin: itaque nāvīs omnīs quās '''parātās habuerant''' ad nāvigandum prōpugnātōribus īnstrūxērunt (Caesar)[36] | 'and so they drew up and manned with fighters all the ships which they had earlier got ready for sailing' |