The main Latin tenses can be divided into two groups: the present system (also known as Latin: infectum tenses), consisting of the present, future, and imperfect; and the perfect system (also known as Latin: perfectum tenses), consisting of the perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect.[1] [2] [3] [4]
To these six main tenses can be added various periphrastic or compound tenses, such as Latin: ductūrus sum 'I am going to lead', or Latin: ductum habeō 'I have led'.[5] However, these are less commonly used than the six basic tenses.
In addition to the six main tenses of the indicative mood, there are four main tenses in the subjunctive mood and two in the imperative mood. Participles in Latin have three tenses (present, perfect, and future). The infinitive has two main tenses (present and perfect) as well as a number of periphrastic tenses used in reported speech.
Latin tenses do not have exact English equivalents, so that often the same tense can be translated in different ways depending on its context: for example, Latin: dūcō can be translated as 'I lead', 'I am leading' or 'I led', and Latin: dūxī can be translated as 'I led' and 'I have led'.[6] In some cases Latin makes a distinction which is not made in English: for example, imperfect Latin: eram and perfect Latin: fuī both mean 'I was' in English, but they differ in Latin.
The six main indicative tenses in classical Latin are the following, using the verb Latin: dūcō as an example:[7]
(a) Latin: Infectum tenses
(b) Latin: Perfectum tenses
The three Latin: perfectum tenses are made using a different stem (in this case dūx- instead of dūc-).[8] The perfect stem can usually not be guessed, and must be learnt from a dictionary.
There are also indicative paradigms for all six tenses in the passive voice, as follows:
(a) Latin: Infectum tenses
(b) Latin: Perfectum tenses
The Latin: perfectum system has simple tenses in the active (Latin: dūxī, dūxerō, dūxeram) and compound tenses in the passive (Latin: ductus sum, ductus erō, ductus eram). The periphrasis for the perfectum passive tenses is made of a passive perfect participle (Latin: ductus, ducta, ductum, ductī, ductae, ducta, which changes according to the gender and number of the subject) combined with different tenses of the verb Latin: sum 'I am'. The forms in brackets were rare in Classical Latin, but became more common in post-classical times. In some cases, during the classical period, a difference in meaning between the two forms can be discerned.[9]
The order of the words in a compound tense can be inverted, e.g. Latin: sum ductus etc. If the negative adverb Latin: nōn 'not' is added, various orders are possible, e.g. Latin: nōn est ausus, ausus nōn est, nōn ausus est 'he did not dare' (the first is the most common).
Certain verbs in Latin have the form of a passive verb, but the meaning is active. These verbs are known as deponent verbs.[10] An example is the verb Latin: sequor 'I follow':
(a) Latin: Infectum tenses
(b) Latin: Perfectum tenses
The so called "periphrastic conjugation" is formed from the future participle (Latin: ductūrus, ductūra, ductūrum, etc., depending on the gender and number of the subject) combined with various tenses of the verb Latin: sum 'I am'.[11] For example:
and so on. Examples are given below.
A passive periphrastic conjugation can be made using a gerundive instead of a participle. This usually has a necessitative meaning such as 'need' or 'have to':[12]
and so on. The gerundive also changes according to the number and gender of the subject (Latin: dūcenda, dūcendum, dūcendī, dūcendae etc.
A third type of periphrastic conjugation, which eventually developed into the perfect or pluperfect tenses in Romance languages such as Italian and French, is formed from the accusative perfect participle (Latin: ductum, ductam, ductōs etc., according to the gender and number of the object) combined with various tenses of Latin: habeō 'I have', for example:[13]
Occasionally, especially in poetry, there occur archaic forms which don't conform to the usual patterns of tense formation. These include futures or future perfects with -s- such as Latin: iussō 'I will have ordered', Latin: faxō 'I will ensure'; subjunctives with -s- such as Latin: ausim 'I would dare', Latin: faxim 'I would do';[14] archaic subjunctives such as Latin: siem, Latin: fuam or Latin: duim;[15] infinitives in -ier or -assere such as Latin: vituperarier or Latin: impetrāssere; shortened perfect or pluperfect forms such as Latin: dīxe (for Latin: dīxisse), Latin: ērēpsēmus (for Latin: ērēpsissēmus), Latin: vīxet (for Latin: vīxisset) etc.[16] These are discussed below.
The present tense of regular verbs is formed in different ways according to the conjugation of the verb.
The six endings in brackets mean 'I, you (singular), he/she/it, we, you (plural), they' respectively. Thus Latin: amās means 'you (sg.) love', Latin: amat 'he/she/it loves' and so on.
Irregular verbs:
There is no distinction of aspect in the present tense: Latin: faciō can mean 'I do (now)', 'I do (regularly), or 'I am doing'; that is, it can be perfective, habitual, or progressive in aspect. Other possible meanings in certain contexts are 'I have been doing', 'I did', and 'I was doing'.
The present tense can refer to a current situation:
Latin: senātus haec '''intellegit'''; cōnsul '''videt'''; hic tamen '''vīvit''' (Cicero)[17]
'the Senate understands this; the Consul sees it; yet this man is still alive'
Latin: tū fortasse vērum '''dīcis''' (Cicero)[18]
'perhaps you are telling the truth'
Latin: ubi nunc fīlius meus '''habitāt'''? (Plautus)[19]
'where is my son living currently?'
Latin: unde '''īs'''? quid '''fers'''? quid '''festīnās'''? (Plautus)[20]
'where are you coming from? what are you carrying? what are you hurrying for?'
The present tense can also be used for habitual actions:
Latin: haec egō '''patior''' cōtidie (Cicero)[21]
'I suffer these things every day'
The present, as in English, can also describe a general truth:[22]
Latin: sōlēs occidere et redīre '''possunt''' (Catullus)[23]
'suns can set and return again'
It can also be used performatively to describe an event which takes place at the moment of speaking or immediately after it:
Latin: '''veniō''' nunc ad Dorylēnsium testimōnium (Cicero)[24]
'I come (I'll come) now to the testimony of the Dorylensians'
The present can sometimes mean 'has been doing', referring to a situation that started in the past and is still continuing. In some sentences a length of time is given and the adverb Latin: iam 'now' is added:[25]
Latin: is Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs '''habitat''' (Cicero)[26]
'he has been living in Lilybaeum for many years now'
Latin: sex mēnsēs iam hīc nēmō '''habitat''' (Plautus)[27]
'no one has been living here for six months now'
Latin: cīvis Rōmānus iam diū '''est''' (Cicero)[28]
'he has been a Roman citizen for a long time now'
The present tense can also be used in this meaning when combined with a temporal clause using Latin: postquam:[29]
Latin: '''tremō horreō'''que postquam aspexī hanc (Terence)[30]
'I've been trembling and shivering ever since I caught sight of her'
Sometimes the Latin: postquam clause itself has the present tense:
Latin: postquam meus '''est''', nullā mē paelice laesit (Martial)[31]
'ever since he has been (lit. 'is') mine, he has never harmed me with a mistress'
Latin: plānē relēgātus mihī '''videor''' posteā quam in Formiānō '''sum''' (Cicero)[32]
'I've been feeling completely out of touch ever since I've been in Formiae'
Another idiom is the following using the conjunction Latin: cum:[33]
multī annī sunt cum in aere meō est (Cicero)[34]
'he has owed me money for many years now' (lit. 'there are many years that he is in my bronze')
The present tense is often used in narrative in a historic sense, referring to a past event, especially when the writer is describing an exciting moment in the story. This is known as the 'historic present':
Latin: '''videt''' imminēre hostēs ... '''capit''' arma ā proximīs ... (Caesar)[35]
'he sees the enemy threatening ... he immediately seizes weapons from those next to him ...'
According to Pinkster, the historic present is the most frequent tense used in narrative in both prose and poetry.[22]
In Caesar when a verb is placed initially in the sentence, as in the first example above (Latin: videt imminēre hostēs), it is very frequently in the present tense.[36]
Another situation where the use of the historic present is frequent is in utterance verbs, such as Latin: fidem dant 'they give a pledge' or Latin: ōrant 'they beg'. More than half the historic presents in Caesar are of this kind.[37]
In biographical writing, however, the perfect is used much more often than the present.[38]
The present tense can replace not only the perfect tense, but also sometimes the imperfect tense:[39]
Latin: tōtīs '''trepidātur''' castrīs (Caesar)[40]
'in the whole camp there is panic' (i.e. people were panicking)
After Latin: dum 'while', in a past context, the present indicative regularly has the meaning of an imperfect tense:[41]
Latin: dumque '''fugit''', tergō vēlāmina lāpsa relīquit (Ovid)[42]
'while she was fleeing, her cloak (Latin: vēlāmina) slipped from her back (Latin: tergō) and she left it behind'
But when Latin: dum is followed by an imperfect tense it usually has the meaning 'as long as'. The difference is that in this case the two actions are co-extensive:[43]
Latin: sēmianimēs errāre viīs, dum stāre '''valēbant''', adspicerēs[44]
'you could see them wandering half dead through the streets, as long as they had the strength to stand'
Another idiom that can be mentioned is the phrase Latin: longum est, which means 'it would take a long time' or 'it would be tedious'. It is frequently used by Cicero as well as other writers:[45]
Latin: '''longum est''' omnia ēnumerāre proelia (Nepos)[46]
'it would be tedious to recount all the battles'
The future indicative has various endings depending on the verb. First conjugation verbs and Latin: eō and its compounds have a future ending in -bō (passive -bor); Latin: sum and its compounds have a future ending in -erō; other verbs have a future ending in -am (passive -ar):
Irregular verbs:
A future meaning can also be expressed using a periphrastic future such as Latin: ductūrus sum 'I am going to lead' (see below).
There is no distinction in the future between perfective and imperfective aspect, so that Latin: dūcam can mean either 'I will lead' or 'I will be leading'.
Future event or situation
The future tense can describe an event or a situation in the near or distant future:
Latin: īnsequentī librō '''explicābō''' (Vitruvius)
'I will explain this in the next book'
Latin: ibī cotīdiē tuās litterās '''exspectābō''' (Cicero)
'when I get there, I shall be expecting your letters every day'
In subordinate clauses
A difference between Latin and English is that in subordinate clauses such as 'if this happens in future', English uses the present tense, but Latin usually uses the future.[47]
Latin: nārrābō cum aliquid '''habēbō''' novī (Cicero)[48]
'I will tell you when I have some news' (lit. 'I will have')
Latin: crūdam sī '''edēs''', in acētum intinguitō (Cato)[49]
'if (at some future time) you eat it (i.e. cabbage) raw, dip it in vinegar'
Latin: per eum quod '''volēmus''' facile auferēmus (Cicero)[50]
'through him we shall easily get what we want' (lit. 'what we will want')
Occasionally, however, a present tense can be used in the subordinate clause referring to the future:[47]
Latin: sī '''vincimus''', omnia nōbīs tūta erunt (Sallust)[51]
'if we win, everything will be safe for us'
Polite requests
The future can also be used for polite requests, as when Cicero sends greetings to his friend Atticus's wife and daughter:
Latin: Pīliae salūtem '''dīcēs''' et Atticae (Cicero)[52]
'please give my greetings to Pilia and Attica'
The imperfect indicative tense of regular verbs ends in -bam or -bar in all verbs except Latin: sum and Latin: possum, when it ends in -ram.
Irregular verbs:
The imperfect indicative generally has an imperfective meaning and describes situations in the past. Often the imperfect can be translated into English as 'was doing', but sometimes the simple tense 'did' or expressions such as 'used to do', 'would do', 'kept doing', 'began to do', 'had been doing' are more appropriate.
Situation at a particular time
A common use of the imperfect is to describe a situation that already existed at a particular moment:
Latin: virgā, quam in manū '''gerēbat''', circumscrīpsit rēgem (Livy)[53]
'with a stick, which he was carrying in his hand, he drew a circle round the king'
Latin: eō cum veniō, praetor '''quiēscēbat''' (Cicero)[54]
'when I got there, the governor was taking a nap'
Latin: ut vērō domum vēnī, '''iacēbat''' mīles meus in lectō (Petronius)[55]
'but when I got home, my soldier was lying in bed'
Latin: (Verrēs) in forum vēnit; '''ārdēbant''' oculī (Cicero)[56]
'(Verres) came into the forum; his eyes were burning (with anger)'
Often an expression such as Latin: tum 'then' or Latin: eō tempore 'at that time' is added:
Latin: ex equō tum forte Mettius '''pugnābat''' (Livy)[57]
'at that time (the time of his death) by chance Mettius was fighting on horseback'
Latin: hiēms iam eō tempore '''erat''' (Livy)[58]
'by this time it was already winter'
Latin: Poenī tum eam '''incolēbant''' (Livy)[59]
'Carthaginians were living on the island at that time'
Vivid description
The use of the imperfect rather than the perfect can be used to make a scene more vivid, as with this sentence of Cicero's:
Latin: '''caedēbātur''' virgīs in mediō forō Messānae cīvis Rōmānus, iūdicēs (Cicero)[60]
'a Roman citizen was being flogged with rods in the middle of the forum of Messana, judges'
The passage is commented on by Aulus Gellius. He says that the use of Latin: caedēbātur rather than Latin: caesus est creates a 'drawn-out vivid description' (Latin: diūtīna repraesentātiō);[61] that is to say, making it seem to the audience that the scene is taking place in front of them.
So frequently in descriptions of battles, the imperfect is used to describe what was happening at a particular moment, as though seen through the eyes of an observer:[62]
Latin: eõdem tempore equitēs ... cum sē in castra reciperent, adversīs hostibus '''occurrēbant''' ac rūrsus aliam in partem fugam '''petēbant''' (Caesar)[63]
'at the same time the cavalrymen ... as they were returning to the camp, began running into the enemy who were coming towards them and once again began fleeing in another direction'
'Began doing'
Another meaning is inceptive, describing a situation that began at a certain moment and continued indefinitely. Often in English it is translated with 'began':[64]
Latin: quō postquam fuga inclīnāvit, aliī in aquam caecī '''ruēbant''', aliī dum cunctantur in rīpīs oppressī (Livy)[65]
'after the rout began, some began rushing blindly into the water, others, while they were hesitating on the banks, were crushed'
Latin: ubī accēpit hominēs clārōs vēnisse, metū '''agitābātur''' (Sallust)[66]
'when he heard that some important people had come, he began to agitated with alarm'
Latin: Caesar, cum in Asiam vēnisset, '''reperiēbat''' T. Ampium cōnātum esse pecūnias tollere Ephesō ex fānō Diānae (Caesar)[67]
'after Caesar arrived in Asia, he began hearing reports that Titus Ampius had been trying to steal money from the temple of Diana in Ephesus'
Habitual use
The imperfect tense can describe a situation that used to take place regularly or habitually:
Latin: multum enim illum '''audiēbam''' (Cicero)
'I used to listen to him a lot'
But in sentences like the following, in which the verb has a quasi-negative meaning ('he didn't write as well as he spoke'), the perfect can be used:[68]
Latin: '''dīcēbat''' melius quam '''scrīpsit''' Hortēnsius (Cicero)[69]
'Hortensius used to speak better than he wrote'
Iterative use
Similar to the above is the iterative or 'frequentative'[70] use of the imperfect, describing what something that kept on happening or which happened on an indefinite number of occasions:
Latin: complurīs lēgātiōnēs Pharnacēs ad Domitium mittit ... Domitius '''respondēbat''' ... ([Caesar])[71]
'Pharnaces sent several embassies to Domitius ... (each time) Domitius would reply ...'
Geographical description
Sometimes the imperfect is used for description of the surroundings as they appeared at the time of the story:
Latin: mōns altissimus '''impendēbat''' (Caesar)[72]
'a very high mountain hung over (the road)'
Unfinished action
Another use is to describe an action that someone was intending to do, or about to do, but which never actually took place, or which was interrupted by another event:[73]
Latin: Cūriam '''relinquēbat''' (Tacitus)[74]
'he was on the point of leaving the Senate house'
Latin: in amplexūs occurrentis fīliae '''ruēbat''', nisi interiectī lictōrēs utrīsque obstitissent (Tacitus)[75]
'he would have rushed into the embrace of his daughter, who was running towards him, if the bodyguards hadn't intervened and stood in the way of both of them'
Latin: quārtādecimānī postquam Alpibus dēgressi sunt, sēditiōsissimus quisque signa Viennam '''ferēbant''': cōnsēnsū meliōrum conpressī et legio in Britanniam trānsvecta (Tacitus)[76]
'after the soldiers of the 14th legion descended from the Alps, all the more rebellious men were for carrying the standards to Vienne; but they were checked by the consensus of the better men and the legion was transported across to Britain'
Pluperfect continuous meaning
When the imperfect tense is used with a length of time it means 'had done' or 'had been doing', referring to a situation which had been going on for some time and was still going on.[77] The adverb Latin: iam 'by now' is sometimes added:
Latin: quod iam diū '''cupiēbant''' (Livy)[78]
'which they had been desiring for a long time now'
Latin: iam complūrēs annōs possessionem Siciliae '''tenēbant''' (Nepos)[79]
'(the Carthaginians) had been in possession of Sicily for several years by this time'
Latin: complūrēs annōs ... Athēnīs '''habitābat''' (Nepos)[80]
'(at that time) he had been living in Athens for several years'
Latin: Philippus nūllus ūsquam nec nūntius ab eō per aliquot hōras '''veniēbat''' (Livy)[81]
'Philip was nowhere in sight, and for several hours no messenger had arrived from him'
Latin: sine coniuge caelebs vīvēbat thalamīque diū cōnsorte '''carēbat''' (Ovid)[82]
'he was living alone without a wife and for a long time he had lacked any partner in his bedroom'
Sometimes in letters a writer imagines himself in the position of the recipient and uses an imperfect tense to describe a situation which for the writer himself is present:[83]
Latin: nostrae res meliore loco '''vidēbantur''' (Cicero)[84]
'our affairs seem (lit. 'seemed') to be in a better place'
Latin: etenim ibī sedēns haec ad te '''scrībēbam''' (Cicero)[85]
'as a matter of fact I am writing (lit. 'I was writing') this to you while sitting there '
Latin: tuās iam litterās Brūtus '''exspectābat''' (Cicero)[86]
'Brutus is expecting (lit. 'was expecting') a letter from you at the moment'
Other tenses can also be used from the point of view of the reader, such as the pluperfect and the perfect in the example below:
Latin: nōndum '''erat audītum''' tē ad Italiam adventāre cum Sex. Villium ... cum hīs ad tē litterīs '''mīsī''' (Cicero)[87]
'there was still no news of your coming to Italy when I sent Sextus Villius with this letter for you'
Potential meaning ('would be')
Sometimes the imperfect of Latin: sum is used with a potential meaning ('would be'):[88]
Latin: omnīnō supervacua '''erat''' doctrīna, sī nātūra sufficeret (Quintilian)[89]
'teaching would be completely superfluous, if nature was sufficient'
Latin: vehementer '''intererat''' vestrā, quī patrēs estis, līberōs vestrōs hīc potissimum discere (Pliny)[90]
'it would be very much in your interest, those of you who are fathers, if your sons could study here rather (than in another town)'
The perfect indicative active tense is the third principal part given in Latin dictionaries. In most verbs it uses a different stem from the present tense; for example, the perfect tense of Latin: dūcō 'I lead' is Latin: dūxī 'I led'.
The usual form of the 3rd pl is Latin: -ērunt. The ending Latin: -ēre is common in some authors, such as Livy, and in poetry. The form Latin: -ĕrunt is sometimes found in poetry.[91]
In the 1st conjugation, the 2nd sg, 2nd pl, and 3rd pl are often contracted, for example Latin: amāstī, amāstis, amārunt. Contracted forms such as Latin: dīxtī (for Latin: dīxistī) are also sometimes found, especially in Plautus.
Irregular verbs:
The forms with Latin: fuī are much less common. These forms are discussed in a separate section below.
The participle changes in gender and number to agree with the subject; for example, it can be plural or feminine:
Latin: quod '''iussī sunt''' faciunt (Caesar)[92]
'they did what they were ordered to do'
Latin: fuērunt ... duae fīliae; hārum ūna '''occīsa''', altera '''capta est''' (Caesar)[93]
'there were two daughters; of these one was killed, the other captured'
The auxiliary verb with these tenses is usually placed after the participle, but sometimes precedes. This often happens when the auxiliary follows a focussed word, a quantity word, or a conjunction:[94]
Latin: Domitius ex castrīs in montem refugiēns, ab equitibus '''est interfectus''' (Caesar)[95]
'Domitius, while fleeing from the camp into the mountains, was killed by cavalrymen'
Latin: inde Quīnctius Corinthum '''est profectus''' (Livy)[96]
'from there Quinctius set out for Corinth'
Sometimes the auxiliary verb Latin: est or Latin: sunt is omitted. This style is often found in the historian Livy:
Latin: Titus et Arrūns '''profectī'''; comes iīs '''additus''' L. Iūnius Brūtus (Livy)[97]
'Titus and Arruns set out; Lucius Iunius Brutus was added to them as a travelling companion'
Not every perfect participle combined with Latin: est is a perfect tense. Thus in the examples below, the participle does not refer to any event but is merely descriptive or adjectival:
Latin: Gallia '''est''' omnis '''dīvīsa''' in partīs trīs (Caesar)[98]
'Gaul, taken as a whole, is (i.e., can be described as) divided into three parts'
Latin: '''parātus erat''' pecūniam dare (Seneca the Elder)[99]
'he was prepared (i.e. willing) to pay a ransom'
Past event
The perfect most frequently narrates an event in the past. The usual translation is the simple English past tense with '-ed' or the equivalent:
Latin: vēnī, vīdī, vīcī (Caesar)[100]
'I came, I saw, I conquered'
Latin: ibī M. Marcellum '''convēni''' eumque diem ibī '''cōnsūmpsī''' (Servius to Cicero)[101]
'there I met Marcus Marcellus, and I spent that day there'
Latin: ūniversī ex nāvī '''dēsiluērunt''' (Caesar)[102]
'all at the same time, they leapt down out of the ship'
The perfect passive and deponent can also be used to describe an event in the past:
Latin: annō ante mē cēnsōrem '''mortuus est''' (Cicero)[103]
'he died in the year before I became censor'
Latin: ubī '''occīsus est''' Sex. Rōscius? – Rōmae (Cicero)[104]
'where was Sextus Roscius murdered? – in Rome'
Present perfect meaning
The perfect active can also be used like the English present perfect ('I have done'):[105]
Latin: ecum et mūlum Brundisī tibī '''relīquī''' (Cicero)[106]
'I have left a horse and a mule for you at Brundisium'
Latin: nunc quidem iam '''abiit''' pestilentia (Cicero)[107]
'the epidemic has now gone away'
Latin: hīs dē rēbus '''scrīpsī''' ad senātum (Cicero)[108]
'I've written about these matters to the Senate'
Latin: pēnsum meum, quod datumst, '''cōnfēcī'''; nunc domum properō (Plautus)[109]
'I have completed the task which I was given; now I'm hurrying home'
Latin: ita rēs sē habent ... '''perdidī''' spem (Plautus)[110]
'this is the way things are ... I have lost hope'
The perfect passive and perfect deponent can be used like an English perfect tense, describing a present state resulting from an earlier event:[111]
Latin: passer '''mortuus est''' meae puellae (Catullus)[112]
'my girlfriend's pet sparrow is dead / has died'
The negative of the perfect often has the meaning 'has not yet done':
Latin: '''nōndum''' satis '''cōnstituī''' (Cicero)[113]
'I haven't yet quite made my mind up'
Latin: Kal. Ian. [Kalendīs Iānuāriīs] dēbuit, adhūc '''nōn solvit''' (Cicero)[114]
'he was due to pay the money on the 1st January, but he still hasn't paid it'
Latin: quoniam nōndum '''est perscrīptum''' senātūs cōnsultum, ex memoriā vōbīs ... expōnam (Cicero)[115]
'since the decree of the Senate hasn't yet been published in writing, I will explain it to you from memory'
Experiential meaning
As with the English perfect, the Latin perfect can sometimes be used to relate experiences which have happened several times in the past:
Latin: cōntiōnēs saepe exclāmāre '''vīdī''', cum aptē verba cecidissent (Cicero)[116]
'I have often seen public meetings shout out loud when the words fell aptly (i.e. with a striking rhythm)'
Latin: ego Appium, ut saepe tēcum '''locūtus sum''', valdē dīligō (Cicero)[117]
'as I've often told you, I am very fond of Appius'
It can also be used with Latin: semper to describe what has always been the case:
Latin: mē semper '''amāstī''' (Cicero)[118]
'you have always loved me'
Latin: mēcum vīvit semperque '''vīxit''' (Cicero)[119]
'he lives with me, and has always done so'
Gnomic perfect
Similar to this is the 'gnomic perfect', which states a general truth based on past experience:[120] [121]
Latin: nōn aeris acervus et aurī '''dēdūxit''' corpore febrīs (Horace)[122]
'a heap of bronze and gold has never taken away fevers from the body' (i.e. doesn't take away)
Latin: nēmō repentē '''fuit''' turpissimus (Juvenal)[123]
'no one has ever become totally shameless suddenly'
No longer existing situation
The perfect can sometimes be used to describe a situation which no longer exists:
Latin: urbs Crotō mūrum in circuitū patentem duodecim mīlia passuum '''habuit''' ante Pyrrhī in Italiam adventum (Livy)[124]
'the city of Croton had (used to have) a wall extending for 12 miles in circuit, before Pyrrhus's arrival in Italy'
Latin: '''amāvit''' nōs quoque Daphnis (Virgil)[125]
'Daphnis loved us too' (when he was alive)
Temporal or relative clause
See also: Temporal clause (Latin). After the conjunction Latin: cum, the perfect indicative often has in iterative meaning (= "whenever").[126] In English the present tense is often used:
Latin: dum legō, adsentior, cum '''posuī''' librum adsēnsiō omnis illa ēlābitur (Cicero)[127]
'while I am reading, I agree, but as soon as I have put the book down all that agreement slips away'
Latin: cum hūc '''vēnī''', hoc ipsum nihil agere dēlectat (Cicero)[128]
'whenever I come here, this very "doing nothing" delights me'
The perfect tense is also used in temporal clauses after Latin: postquam 'after', Latin: ubi 'when', Latin: ut 'as soon as', and Latin: simulac 'as soon as'. Here English often uses the pluperfect tense:
Latin: haec ubi '''dīxit''', ... signa canere iubet (Sallust)[129]
'after he (had) said this, he ordered the signal to be sounded'
It is also used in a past-time relative clause referring to an anterior action where similarly English might use a pluperfect:
Latin: exercitum quem '''accēpit''' āmīsit (Cicero)[130]
'he lost the army which he had received'
Perfect with length of time
The perfect, not the imperfect, is used when a situation is said to have lasted in the past for a certain length of time, but is now over.[68] (The imperfect, however, with a length of time, is used for a situation which was still going on at the time referred to; see the examples above.)
Latin: nōnāgintā '''vīxit''' annōs (Cicero)[131]
'he lived for ninety years'
Latin: Cassius tōtā vītā aquam '''bibit''' (Seneca)[132]
'Cassius drank water throughout his whole life'
Latin: '''nec''' diū pāx Albāna '''mānsit''' (Livy)[133]
'but the peace with Alba did not last long'
Latin: omnēs ante vōs cōnsulēs senātuī '''pāruērunt''' (Cicero)[134]
'all the Consuls before you obeyed the Senate'
However, the phrase Latin: iam diū with the perfect tense means 'long ago':
Latin: '''audīvimus''' hoc '''iam diū''', iūdicēs: negō quemquam esse vestrum quīn saepe audierit (Cicero)[135]
'I heard this long ago, judges; I am sure there is none of you who hasn't often heard it'
Latin: scelus, inquam, '''factum est iam diū''', antīquom et vetus (Plautus)[136]
'the crime, I say, was committed long ago; it is old and ancient'
Latin: Meminī, ōdī, nōvī
Certain verbs, of which the most common are Latin: meminī 'I remember', Latin: ōdī 'I hate', and Latin: nōvī 'I know', are used in the perfect tense but have the meaning of a present tense:
Latin: '''meminī''' mē adesse (Cicero)[137]
'I remember being present'
Latin: sī tū oblītus es, at dī '''meminērunt''' (Catullus)[138]
'even if you have forgotten, yet the gods remember'
Latin: '''ōdī''' et amō (Catullus)[139]
'I hate and I love'
The future perfect and pluperfect of these verbs serve as the equivalent of a future or imperfect tense: Latin: meminerō 'I will remember', Latin: memineram 'I remembered'. Latin: meminī has an imperative Latin: mementō 'remember!' There is also a subjunctive which can be used in a hortatory sense:
Latin: vīvōrum '''meminerīmus'''! (Petronius)[140]
'let us remember the living (not the dead)!'
The verb Latin: nōvī usually means 'I know':
Latin: tē nōn '''nōvimus''', nescīmus quī sīs, numquam tē anteā vīdimus (Cicero)[141]
'we don't know you, we don't know who you are, we have never seen you before'
But sometimes the perfect Latin: nōvī has a past meaning, 'I became acquainted with' or 'I got to know':
Latin: sum; sed ubī tū mē '''nōvistī''' gentium aut vīdistī aut conlocūtu's?[142] (Plautus)[143]
'I am (the one you mentioned); but where on earth did you make my acquaintance or see me or ever converse with me?'
The perfect of Latin: cōnsuēscō, Latin: cōnsuēvī 'I have grown accustomed', is also often used with a present meaning:[144]
Latin: quī diēs aestūs maximōs efficere '''cōnsuēvit''' (Caesar)[145]
'this day generally makes the highest tides'
In the verb Latin: sum 'I am', the imperfect tense Latin: eram and the perfect Latin: fuī both mean 'I was', but in Latin there is usually a difference. As with other verbs, the perfect is usually used when the length of time is mentioned:
Latin: diū ... silentium '''fuit''' (Livy)[146]
'for a long time there was silence'
Latin: caecus multōs annōs '''fuit''' (Cicero)[147]
'for many years he was blind'
But if the situation was still continuing at the time referred to, the imperfect is used:
Latin: equitum iam diū anceps pugna '''erat''' (Livy)[148]
'the cavalry battle had been in doubt for a long time already (and was still in doubt)'
The perfect is also used when the sentence describes an event rather than a state:
Latin: aquae ingentēs eō annō '''fuērunt''' et Tiberis loca plāna urbis inundāvit (Livy)[149]
'that year there were huge floods and the Tiber inundated the flat areas of the city'
Latin: '''fuistī''' igitur apud Laecam illā nocte, Catilīna! (Cicero)[150]
'you were therefore there at Laeca's house that night, Catiline!' (i.e. you attended the meeting)
Another use of the perfect Latin: fuī is to describe a former state, emphasising that it is no longer in existence:[120]
Latin: ego tam '''fuī''' quam vōs estis (Petronius)[151]
'I was once just like you are'
Latin: statua Attī ... ad laevam cūriae '''fuit''' (Livy)[152]
'there used to be a statue of Attus to the left of the senate house'
Latin: '''fuimus''' Trōes, '''fuit''' Īlium (Virgil)[153]
'we have ceased to be Trojans; Troy is no more'
However, if a time adverb such as Latin: ōlim 'once upon a time' is added, there is no need for the perfect tense and the imperfect Latin: eram is more usual:
Latin: '''ōlim''' truncus '''eram''' fīculnus, inūtile lignum (Horace)[154]
'once I was a fig-wood log, a useless piece of timber'
Latin: nōn sum quālis '''eram''' bonae sub regnō Cinarae (Horace)[155]
'I am not the kind of man I was under the rule of good Cinara'
The perfect is also used in sentences such as the following, which describe a permanent state, as opposed to the imperfect, which describes a temporary one:[156]
Latin: Samia mihī māter '''fuit'''; ea habitābat Rhodī (Terence)[157]
'my mother was a Samian; she was living in Rhodes (at that time)'
Latin: apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus '''fuit''' et dītissimus Orgetorix (Caesar)[158]
'among the Helvetians by far the noblest and the most wealthy was Orgetorix'
According to Pinkster, the use of erat in these two examples would sound wrong. 'In both cases the reader would want to know "What happened next?"'[159]
For geographical description, on the other hand, erat is used, describing the landscape was it was at the time of the narrative:
Latin: in eō flūmine pōns '''erat''' (Caesar)[160]
'on that river there was a bridge'
Latin: '''erat''' ā septentriōnibus collis[161]
'to the north there was a hill."
The use of Latin: fuit here would imply that there used to be a bridge, but that it has now gone.
The perfect must also be used with adverbs such as Latin: semel 'once', Latin: bis 'twice', Latin: ter 'three times', which imply that the situation is now over:[162]
Latin: '''fuī''' bis in Bīthȳniā (Cicero)[163]
'I have been in Bithynia twice'
The perfect is also used for something which has always been (or never been) the case:
Latin: numquam hostēs, semper sociī '''fuimus''' (Livy)[164]
'we have never been enemies, always allies'
The adverb Latin: saepe, when referring to a past period of time, can have either tense:
Latin: saepe exercitibus '''praefuit''' (Nepos)
'on several occasions he was in charge of armies'
Latin: saepe tuī iūdex, saepe magister '''eram''' (Ovid)[165]
'often I was your judge, often your teacher'
There are also some types of sentences where either tense may be used indifferently, for example when describing someone's name or character:
Latin: Manus eī nōmen '''erat''' / Latin: Dīnomenī '''fuit''' nōmen (Livy)[166]
'his name was Manus' / 'his name was Dinomenes'
Latin: dīligēns '''erat''' imperātor / Latin: imperātor '''fuit''' summus (Nepos)[167]
'he was a hard-working general' / 'he was an excellent general'
The equivalent of these two tenses, Spanish Spanish; Castilian: era and Spanish; Castilian: fui both meaning 'I was', still exist in Spanish and Portuguese today. (See Spanish conjugation, Portuguese verb conjugation.)
The future perfect active originally had a short -i-, while the perfect subjunctive had a long -ī-, but by the time of Cicero the two forms had become confused. It seems that Catullus and Cicero usually pronounced the future perfect with a long ī.[168] Virgil has a short i for both tenses; Horace uses both forms for both tenses; Ovid uses both forms for the future perfect, but a long i in the perfect subjunctive.[169]
Irregular verbs:
The future perfect is usually used in a sentence with Latin: sī 'if' or Latin: cum 'when' referring to future time, but it can sometimes be used on its own, as in the following sentences where it follows an imperative:
Latin: nōn sedeō istīc, vōs sedēte; ego '''sēderō''' in subselliō (Plautus)[170]
'I'm not sitting there; you sit there, I'll sit on the bench.'
Latin: Pompōnia, tū invītā mulierēs, egō virōs '''accīverō''' (Cicero)[171]
'Pomponia, you invite the women, and (meanwhile) I will have summoned the men'
In the following passage with a future perfect is the call of Julius Caesar's eagle-bearer to his men when their boat reached the shore of Britain in 55 BC:
Latin: 'dēsilite', inquit, 'mīlitēs, nisī vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere; egō certē meum reī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium '''praestiterō''' (Caesar)[172]
'Jump down, soldiers,' he said, 'unless you want to betray the eagle to the enemy. I will certainly have done my own duty for the republic and the commander!'
Sometimes both halves of a sentence (main clause and subordinate) can have the future perfect:[173]
Latin: quī Antōnium '''oppresserit''', is bellum '''cōnfēcerit''' (Cicero)[174]
'whoever will have crushed (i.e. crushes) Antony, will have finished the war'
Latin: satis '''erit dictum''', si hoc ūnum '''adiūnxerō''' (Nepos)[175]
'enough will have been said, if I add this one thing'
There is also an idiom using the future perfect of Latin: videō, where the future perfect is almost equivalent to a command:
Latin: vōs '''vīderītis''' quod illī dēbeātur (Livy)[176]
'you must see to it what is due to that man'
More frequently the future perfect tense is found after Latin: sī 'if' or Latin: cum 'when' in clauses referring to a future time. In such sentences English uses the present tense:[177] [144]
Latin: moriēre, sī '''ēmīserīs''' vōcem! (Livy)[178]
'you will die, if you utter a sound!' (lit. 'if you will have uttered')
Latin: dein, cum mīlia multa '''fēcerīmus''', conturbābimus illa (Catullus)[179]
'then, when we have made many thousands (of kisses), we will muddle up the accounts'
Latin: sī quid '''acciderit''', tē certiōrem faciam statim (Cicero)[180]
'if anything happens, I'll let you know at once'
Latin: sī '''profectus erit''', faciam tē certiōrem (Cicero)[181]
'if he sets out (lit. will be having set out), I will let you know'
Latin: ut sēmentum '''fēcerīs''', ita metēs (Cicero)[182]
'as you sow (lit. will have sown), so shall you reap'
The future perfect of Latin: meminī and Latin: ōdī has a simple future meaning:
Latin: '''meminerō''', dē istōc quiētus estō (Plautus)[183]
'I'll remember, don't worry about that'
Latin: ōdī hominem et '''ōderō''' (Cicero)[184]
'I hate the man, and I always will'
An ancient future or future perfect is sometimes found in early Latin ending in -sō: Latin: faxō, capsō, iūssō, amāssō, occepsō.[185] The form Latin: faxō is often found in Plautus and Terence. It means something like 'I will make sure' or 'assuredly'. In Plautus it is often followed by a future indicative:
Latin: '''faxō''' iam sciēs (Plautus)[186]
'assuredly you will know now'
But it can also be followed by a present subjunctive:
Latin: '''faxō''' ut sciās (Plautus)[187]
'I will see to it that you know'
The 2nd person ends in -is. The metre in the following example (a repeated u u – u –) shows that the -i- is short in the indicative, whereas the subjunctive has a long -i-:[188]
Latin: si '''effexis''' hoc, soleās tibī dabō, et ānulum in digitō aureum (Plautus)[189]
'if you manage this, I'll give you some slippers, and a gold ring on your finger'
Apart from Latin: faxō the tense is rarely used in later Latin; but Latin: iussō occurs in Virgil:
Latin: cētera, quā '''iussō''', mēcum manus īnferat arma (Virgil)[190]
'the rest of the group should come with me and bring their weapons where I shall have ordered'
Quoting the above line, Seneca comments that Latin: iussō is equivalent to a future perfect:
Latin: dīcēbant antīquī "sī '''iussō'''", id est "iusserō" (Seneca)[191]
'people in the old days used to say Latin: sī iussō, that is, Latin: '''iusserō''''
According to Lindsay, this tense ending in -sō corresponds to the Greek future tense ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σω.[192] It is connected with the subjunctive ending in -sim and the future infinitive in -āssere, described below.
The pluperfect active is formed using the perfect stem (e.g. Latin: dūx-) with the endings Latin: -eram, -erās, -erat, -erāmus, -erātis, -erant, e.g. Latin: dūxeram 'I had led'
The passive and deponent are usually formed using a perfect participle together with the imperfect tense of Latin: sum, e.g. Latin: ductus eram 'I had been led', Latin: locūtus eram 'I had spoken'. But there is another pluperfect passive (often with a different meaning), Latin: ductus fueram, which is discussed in a separate section below.
As with the perfect passive, the pluperfect passive tense can also have the auxiliary before the participle:
Latin: Cispius quō '''erat missus''' celeriter pervēnit ([Caesar])[193]
'Cispius quickly reached the place to which he had been sent'
The pluperfect represents any meaning which the perfect tense can have, but transferred to a reference time in the past.
Prior event
The pluperfect can be used as in English to describe an event that had happened earlier than the time of the narrative:
Latin: quae gēns paucīs ante mēnsibus ad Caesarem lēgātōs '''mīserat''' (Caesar)[194]
'this nation had sent ambassadors to Caesar a few months previously'
Latin: eādem quā '''vēnerat''' viā Elatīam rediit (Livy)[195]
'he returned to Elatia by the same way he had come'
Latin: prīdiē quam ego Athēnās vēnī Mytilēnās '''profectus erat''' (Cicero)[196]
'on the day before I arrived in Athens he had departed for Mytilene'
Situation at a time in the past
Often the pluperfect can be used to describe the situation prevailing at a certain moment:
Latin: '''abierant''' cēterī; Clītus ultimus sine lūmine '''exībat''' (Curtius)[197]
'the others had already departed; Clitus was going out last, without a light'
Latin: nec Philippus segnius – iam enim in Macedoniam '''pervēnerat''' – apparābat bellum (Livy)[198]
'nor was Philip, who had arrived by now in Macedonia, preparing war less energetically'
Latin: complūrēs '''erant''' in castrīs ex legiōnibus aegrī '''relictī''' (Caesar)[199]
'several men from the legions had been left behind in the camp sick'/
(or) 'there were several men from the legions in the camp who had been left behind because they were sick'
No longer existing situation
Just as the perfect tense can sometimes describe a situation that no longer exists at the present time (e.g. Latin: fuit Īlium), so the pluperfect can describe a situation which no longer existed at a time in the past, as in the following example:
Latin: flūmen, quod mediō oppidō '''flūxerat''', extrā frequentia tēctīs loca praeterfluēbat (Curtius)[200]
'the river, which had once flowed (been flowing) though the middle of the town, was now flowing past outside the built-up area'
Pluperfect in temporal clauses
In subordinate clauses of the type 'whenever...', 'whoever...' etc. in past time the pluperfect indicative is used if the event precedes the event of the main clause. Usually in English the simple past is used:[201]
Latin: cum rosam '''vīderat''' tum incipere vēr arbitrābātur (Cicero)[202]
'it was only whenever he saw a rose that he thought that spring was beginning'
Latin: cōnfectō itinere cum ad aliquod oppidum '''vēnerat''', eādem lectīcā ūsque in cubiculum dēferēbātur (Cicero)[202]
'at the end of the journey, whenever he came to some town, he would be carried in the same litter straight into his bedroom'
In later writers such as Livy, the pluperfect subjunctive is used in a similar context.[203]
Potential meaning ('would have')
Sometimes in a conditional clause a pluperfect indicative can have the meaning of a potential pluperfect subjunctive ('would have'), when it refers to an event which very nearly took place, but did not:[88]
Latin: '''perāctum erat''' bellum, sī Pompeium Brundisiī opprimere potuisset (Florus)[204]
'the war would have been completely finished, if (Caesar) had been able to crush Pompey at Brundisium'
Pluperfect of Latin: meminī, Latin: ōdī, Latin: nōvī
The pluperfect of Latin: ōdī, Latin: nōvī and Latin: meminī has the meaning of an imperfect:
Latin: '''meminerant''' ad Alesiam magnam sē inopiam perpessōs (Caesar)[205]
'they remembered how they had put up with a great shortage at Alesia'
Latin: '''ōderam''' multō peius hunc quam illum ipsum Clōdium (Cicero)[206]
'I hated this man even more than I hated Clodius himself'
Latin: nōn '''nōverat''' Catilīnam; Āfricam tum praetor ille obtinēbat (Cicero)[207]
'he did not know Catiline, since the latter was at that time governor of Africa'
Alongside the regular perfect passive tenses described in the previous section, there exists a second set of passive and deponent tenses made with Latin: fuī, fuerō and Latin: fueram.[208] These are referred to as 'double Latin: perfectum forms' by de Melo.[209] In early Latin, they seem to be slightly more common in deponent verbs than in passive ones, though in later Latin this difference is not found.[210]
In classical Latin, although these tenses occur, they are only rarely used. In Plautus and Terence the perfect passive or deponent with Latin: fuī occurs 25 times compared with 1383 of the regular forms, and the pluperfect indicative with Latin: fueram 9 times compared with the regular pluperfect 11 times.[211] In Cicero they are rarer still: the numbers of examples of the six tenses above are 1, 6, 5, 5, 5, 2 respectively.[212]
The history of the perfect with Latin: fuī is different from the other tenses. For a long time it was rarely used. It remained rare in the Augustan period and does not occur at all in the travelogue of the pilgrim Egeria (4th century AD). Later, however, in the 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar, it became more common.[213] In modern Spanish and Portuguese, it is the regular way of forming the past tense passive (e.g. Spanish Spanish; Castilian: fue matado en la guerra 'he was killed in the war', Portuguese Portuguese: foi construído em 1982 'it was built in 1982').
The pluperfect indicative with Latin: fueram and future perfect with Latin: fuerō, on the other hand, were used more often in classical Latin: in the Augustan-period writers Hyginus and Vitruvius they even outnumber the normal tenses, and in the travelogue of the pilgrim Egeria (4th century AD), they completely replaced them.[214]
In the examples below, in cases where there is contrast of tenses, the verb with Latin: fuit generally refers to an earlier situation than the verb with Latin: est. According to Woodcock, this is clearly a factor in the choice of tense.[215] Often the correct nuance can be obtained by adding the word 'earlier' or 'previously'. In some cases, however, there is little difference in meaning from the ordinary perfect or pluperfect tense.[216]
For the double perfect infinitive, see
The perfect passive or deponent tense with Latin: fuī in some cases refers to an earlier time than the time of another event mentioned. Woodcock quotes the following example:[215]
Latin: prior '''nātus fuit''' Sophoclēs quam Eurīpidēs (Gellius)[217]
'Sophocles was born before Euripides (was born)'
In the following examples, the double perfect refers to a situation which existed a long time earlier, before Ovid was exiled:
Latin: mōvit amīcitiae tum tē cōnstantia longae, ante tuōs ortūs quae mihi '''coepta fuit''' (Ovid)[218]
'you were moved at that time by the constancy of a long friendship, which began for me even before you were born'
Latin: utque '''fuī solitus''', sēdissem forsitan ūnus dē centum iūdex in tua verba virīs (Ovid)[219]
'and as I was once accustomed (before I was exiled), I would perhaps have sat, one of a hundred men, as a judge of your words'
However, according to de Melo[220] it is not always possible to tell from the context whether the tense with Latin: fuī refers to an anterior time or is merely a stylistic variation of an ordinary perfect passive. He contrasts the following two sentences, the first of which is made with Latin: sum and refers to a very recent time; the second is made with Latin: fuī and may refer to a time earlier than the following verb but this is not certain (the speaker goes on to say that after sailing to Egypt he sailed round the most distant coasts, Latin: ōrās ultimās sum circumvectus):
Latin: '''vectus''' hūc '''sum'''; etiam nunc nauseō (Plautus)[221]
'I came here on a boat; I am still feeling seasick'
Latin: in Aegyptum hīnc '''vectus fuī''' (Plautus)[222]
'I (originally) sailed from here to Egypt'
In the following examples, both from the same scene, the meaning of the double perfect passive seems to be the same as an ordinary perfect active:
Latin: quod '''fuī iūrātus''', fēcī (Plautus)[223]
'what I swore that I would do, I have done'
Latin: quod '''mandāstī''', fēcī (Plautus)[224]
'what you ordered, I have done'
Similarly, the following two examples use different tenses, although the context is very similar and the meaning is the same:
Latin: est quod domī dīcere paene '''fuī oblītus''' (Plautus)[225]
'there's something which I almost forgot to say (earlier) in the house (i.e. before we left the house)'
Latin: '''oblītus''' intus dūdum tibi '''sum''' dīcere (Plautus)[226]
'I forgot to tell you when we were inside just now'
However, only the Latin: sum form can be used in sentences like the following where the verb has a present perfect meaning:
Latin: nesciõ ... '''oblītus sum''' omnia (Plautus)[227]
'I don't know ... I've forgotten everything'
In some cases, the perfect participle accompanied by Latin: fuī is merely adjectival, and does not describe any particular event. Thus in the following example, according to the 19th-century grammarian Madvig,[228] the words Latin: clausus fuit do not describe an event but the state in which the temple of Janus was in:
Latin: bis deinde post Numae regnum '''clausus fuit''' (Livy)[229]
'since Numa's reign the temple of Janus has been in a closed state only twice'
The perfect indicative with Latin: fuī is not used by Cicero except in the following example,[230] where the participles are adjectival. It refers to a previous situation which has now changed:
Latin: omnia ferē, quae sunt conclūsa nunc artibus, '''dispersa et dissipāta''' quondam '''fuērunt''' (Cicero)[231]
'almost all the things which have now been included in the Arts were once dispersed and scattered'
Often, especially from the Augustan period onwards, this tense had no particular anterior meaning but was a mere variation of the perfect passive with Latin: sum. De Melo cites the following example, where the second verb is obviously not anterior to the first:
Latin: pictūrae excīsae '''inclūsae sunt''' in ligneīs fōrmīs et in comitium ... '''fuērunt allātae''' (Vitruvius)[232]
'the pictures having been cut out were packed in wooden crates and were brought into the comitium'
In the Vulgate Bible (4th century A.D.), just as with Cicero, the perfect indicative with Latin: fuī is only very rarely used compared with the other double tenses. An example is the following:
Latin: neque '''ausus fuit''' quisquam ex illā diē eum amplius interrogāre[233]
'and after that day no one dared to ask him any questions any more'
The following example, quoted by Woodcock, contrasts the two passive future perfect tenses. There is a clear difference in time between the two verbs:
Latin: quod tibī '''fuerit persuāsum''', huīc erit persuāsum (Cicero)[234]
'whatever has (first) proved acceptable to you will be acceptable to him'
In the following examples, a distinction is made between an earlier situation, expressed by the pluperfect with Latin: fuerat, and a later situation, expressed by the ordinary pluperfect with Latin: erat:[235]
Latin: pōns, quī '''fuerat''' tempestāte '''interruptus''', paene '''erat refectus''' (Caesar)[236]
'the bridge, which (earlier on) had been broken by a storm, had now almost been rebuilt'
Latin: tumultus quidem Gallicus et Ligustīnus, quī prīncipiō eius annī '''exortus fuerat''', haud magnō cōnātū brevī '''oppressus erat''' (Livy)[237]
'indeed a rebellion in Gaul and Liguria, which had arisen earlier on at the beginning of that year, had soon been suppressed without much effort'
In the following, the double pluperfect is similarly contrasted with an ordinary active pluperfect. In each case the situation resulting from the double pluperfect verb no longer applies, while the situation resulting from the ordinary pluperfect still holds true:
Latin: frūmenta enim, quae '''fuerant''' intrā mūnītiōnēs '''sata''', '''consūmpserant''' (Caesar)[238]
'for by this time they had used up the corn which had earlier been sown inside the defence walls
Latin: nec enim adhūc '''exciderat''' cocus ille, qui '''oblītus fuerat''' porcum exinterare (Petronius)[239]
'nor had that cook yet slipped my mind, who had earlier on forgotten to gut the piglet'
In the following examples, the pluperfect with Latin: fuerat is used similarly to refer to an earlier situation which later changed, while the later situation is expressed by the perfect tense:
Latin: sed arx Crotōnis, .... sitū tantum nātūrālī quondam mūnīta, posteā et mūrō cīncta est, quā per āversās rūpēs ab Dionȳsio Siciliae tyrannō per dolum '''fuerat capta'''. (Livy)[240]
'But the citadel of Croton, which had formerly been defended only by its natural situation, was later surrounded by a wall as well, in the place where it had once been captured by Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily through trickery by means of the cliffs on the far side'
Latin: arma quae '''fīxa''' in pariētibus '''fuerant''', ea sunt humī inventa (Cicero)[241]
'the weapons which had (previously) been fixed on the walls were found on the ground'
Latin: parte alterā pugnae Paulus, quamquam prīmō statim proeliō fundā graviter '''ictus fuerat''', tamen occurrit saepe cum cōnfertīs Hannibalī (Livy)[242]
'in the second half of the fight, Paulus, although (earlier on) right at the beginning of the battle he had been seriously wounded by a sling-shot, nonetheless several times went on to attack Hannibal, with his soldiers in close formation'
Latin: quod Īdibus '''fuerat dictum''' dē agrō Campānō āctum īrī, nōn est āctum (Cicero)[243]
'as for what had been said (earlier) on the Ides that a debate would be held on the Campanian farmland, in the end it didn't take place'
The following example looks back to a conversation which had taken place at an earlier time and in another place:
Latin: ex quō ego vēnī ad ea quae '''fuerāmus''' ego et tū inter nōs dē sorōre in Tusculānō '''locūtī''' (Cicero)[21]
'after this I came to those things which (earlier on) you and I had spoken about together in my Tusculan villa concerning your sister'
The following refers to a time in the distant past:
Latin: domō eādem fuit contentus, quā Eurysthenēs, prōgenitor maiōrum suōrum, '''fuerat ūsus''' (Nepos)[244]
'he was content to live in the same house that Eurysthenes, the forefather of his ancestors, had once used'
With this tense it is usually unnecessary to add an expression meaning 'earlier', since this meaning is implied in the tense itself, but in the following example it is made explicit with the words Latin: superiōre tempore 'at an earlier time':
Latin: vultū atque sermōne quō superiōre tempore '''ūsus fuerat''' dum dormītum īsset, ferrum intrō clam in cubiculum tulit atque ita sē trāiēcit ([Caesar])[245]
'and with the same facial expression and manner of speech which he had been accustomed to use previously whenever he went to bed, he secretly took a sword into his bedroom and stabbed himself with it'
In the following the meaning 'previously' or 'earlier on' is not explicit, but would fit the context:
Latin: lūcernam forte '''oblītus fueram''' exstinguere (Plautus)[246]
'by chance (earlier on) I had forgotten to extinguish the lamp'
Latin: vīdī tē ... quaecumque in mē '''fuerās mentīta''' fatērī (Propertius)[247]
'I saw you (in a dream) confessing all the things which you had previously lied to me about'
The future participle with the present tense of Latin: sum is known as the periphrastic future. It describes a person's intention at the present time. It can be translated with 'going to', 'planning to', 'intending to', or by using the future continuous 'I'll be doing':
Latin: Paulla Valeria ... '''nūptūra est''' D. Brūtō (Cicero)[248]
'Paulla Valeria is going to marry Decimus Brutus'
Latin: nisī explicātā solūtiōne nōn '''sum discessūrus''' (Cicero)
'I'm not going to leave until the money is paid'
Despite its name, the future periphrastic tense Latin: factūrus sum is really a present tense, describing a person's present intentions. For this reason, it can have a future form Latin: ductūrus erō, used for example in future conditional or future temporal clauses:
Latin: tu tamen sī quid cum Sīliō, vel illō ipsō diē quō ad Siccam '''ventūrus erō''', certiōrem mē velim faciās (Cicero)[249]
'but if you come to any arrangement with Silius, even if it is on the very day I'll be arriving at Sicca's house, please let me know'
Latin: clāmābat tumidīs audāx Lēandros in undīs: / "mergite mē, fluctūs, cum '''reditūrus erō'''" (Martial)[250]
'daring Leander was shouting in the swelling waves: "drown me, waves, when I'll be coming back"'
A past version of the periphrastic future can be made with the imperfect tense of sum, describing what someone's intentions were at a moment in the past:
Latin: posterō diē ille in Italiam versus '''nāvigātūrus erat''' (Servius to Cicero)[251]
'on the next day he was intending to sail to Italy'
Latin: ut vērō vultūs et cornua vīdit in undā, 'mē miserum!' '''dictūrus erat''': vōx nūlla secūta est (Ovid)[252]
'when she saw her face and horns in the water, "o poor me!" she was going to say, but no words came out'
In a conditional sentence this tense can mean 'would have done':[88]
Latin: '''ēmendātūrus''', sī licuisset, '''eram''' (Ovid)[253]
'I was going to remove the faults (i.e. I would have removed them), if I had been free to do it'
Although less common than the periphrastic future with Latin: eram, the perfect tense version of the periphrastic future is also found:[254]
Latin: quō diē repulsus est, lūsit, quā nocte '''peritūrus fuit''', lēgit (Seneca)[255]
'on the day Cato was defeated in the election, he played; on the night he was going to die, he read'
This tense can also be potential, expressing the meaning 'would have done':
Latin: sī tibī nōn pāruissem, iūre '''datūrus fuī''' poenās (Curtius)[256]
'if I had not obeyed you, I would rightly have paid the penalty'
An example of this tense is the following:
Latin: quem senātus dictātōrem dīcī '''iussūrus fuerat''' (Livy)[257]
'... whom the Senate had been intending to order should be declared dictator'
The gerundive of the verb (an adjectival form ending in -ndus) can be combined with the verb Latin: sum 'I am' to make a passive periphrastic tense. This usually expresses what is needing to be done:
Latin: ego nec '''rogandus sum''' nec '''hortandus''' (Pliny)[258]
'I don't need to be asked or encouraged' (i.e. I will do it willingly)
Latin: hī tumōres '''incīdendī sunt''' (Celsus)[259]
'tumours of this kind need to be lanced'
Negative meaning
The negative gerundive usually means 'not needing to be', as in the first example above or the first example below. However, sometimes the interpretation 'ought not to be' or 'it isn't possible for it to be' is more appropriate:
Latin: illud enim iam nōn '''es admonendus''' nēminem bonum esse nisī sapientem (Seneca)[260]
'you do not need to be reminded now that no one is good except the wise man'
Latin: Callimachī numerīs nōn '''est dīcendus''' Achillēs (Ovid)
'the story of Achilles shouldn't (or can't) be told using the metre of Callimachus'
Impersonal construction
Very often the passive periphrastic is used impersonally, together with a dative of the agent:
Latin: vōbīs hodiernō diē '''cōnstituendum est''' (Cicero)[261]
'a decision needs to be made by you today'
The impersonal form of this tense can also be made using intransitive verbs such as Latin: eō 'I go' and verbs such as Latin: persuādeō 'I persuade' and Latin: ūtor 'I use' which do not take an accusative object:[262]
Latin: nōn '''est respondendum''' ad omnia (Cicero)[263]
'there is no need to reply to everything'
Latin: mihī Arpīnum '''eundum est''' (Cicero)[264]
'I have to go to Arpinum'
Latin: tuō tibī iūdiciō '''est ūtendum''' (Cicero)[265]
'you must use your judgement'
An example of a future gerundive periphrastic is the following:
Latin: quoniam id quidem non potest, '''ōrandus erit''' nōbīs amīcus meus, M. Plaetōrius (Cicero)[266]
'since that isn't possible, we will need to ask my friend, Marcus Plaetorius'
An example of the imperfect passive periphrastic is the following:
Latin: timēbat, nōn ea sōlum quae '''timenda erant''', sed omnia (Cicero)[267]
'he was afraid not only of those things which needed to be feared, but everything'
As with the active perfect periphrastic, in a conditional sentence the perfect gerundive periphrastic tense can mean 'would have done':[268]
Latin: sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, '''moriendum''' omnibus '''fuit''' (Livy)[269]
'if you had delayed just one day, you would all have died'
Another meaning of the perfect passive is 'ought to have been done':
Latin: aut exercitus '''adimendus''' aut imperium '''dandum fuit''' (Cicero)[270]
'either his army should have been taken away or the command should have been given to him'
In the following result clause, this tense becomes subjunctive:
Latin: dē Pomptīnō rēctē scrībis. est enim ita ut, sī ante Kal. Iūniās Brundisī futūrus sit, minus '''urgendī fuerint''' M. Anneius et L. Tullius (Cicero)
'what you write about Pomptinus is correct: for the fact is that, if he is going to be in Brundisium before the 1st June, it wasn't so necessary for Marcus Anneius and Lucius Tullius to have been urged to hurry'
The active future perfect periphrastic tense is not found, but the passive occurs:
Latin: cum '''aedificandum fuerit''', ante biennium ea saxa eximantur (Vitruvius)[271]
'whenever (at some future time) it is necessary for a building to be made (using local stone), the stones for it should be quarried two years in advance'
Occasionally the gerundive has the meaning of a simple future passive, without any sense of obligation. However, this is generally only found in post-classical Latin, as in the following examples from Eutropius (4th century AD) and the Historia Augusta (4th or 5th century AD):[272]
Latin: Hannibal, cum '''trādendus''' Rōmānīs '''esset''', venēnum bibit (Eutropius)[273]
'when Hannibal was about to be handed over to the Romans, he drank poison'
Latin: comperit '''adoptandum''' sē ā Trāiānō '''esse''' (Hist. Aug.)[274]
'he found out that he was going to be adopted by Trajan'
For other examples of gerundive infinitive tenses see
Occasionally a perfect tense is made using the perfect participle combined with various tenses of the verb Latin: habeō 'I have'. This became the regular way of forming the perfect tense in French and Italian.[275]
According to Gildersleeve and Lodge, this form of the perfect 'is not a mere circumlocution for the Perfect, but lays particular stress on the maintenance of the result'.[121] However, in some cases it can be translated simply as a perfect tense in English:
Latin: ratiōnes Erōtis, etsī ipsum nondum vīdī, tamen ex litterīs eius prope modum '''cognitās habeō''' (Cicero)[276]
'As for Eros's accounts, although I haven't seen him in person, I have more or less learnt what they say from his letter'
Latin: Clōdī animum '''perspectum habeō, cognitum, iūdicātum''' (Cicero)[277]
'I have now thoroughly examined, learnt, and judged Clodius's mind'
In later Latin this construction became more common, for example:[278]
Latin: ecce episcopum ... '''invītātum habēs''' et vix nōbīs supersunt quattuor vīnī amphorae (Gregory of Tours, 6th century)[279]
'you have invited the Bishop, and we have scarcely four jars of wine left!'
A variation with Latin: teneō 'I hold or keep' is also sometimes found, but usually with emphasis on the idea of holding:
Latin: populī Rōmānī exercitus Cn. Pompeium circumsedet, fossā et vallō '''saeptum tenet''', fugā prohibet (Cicero)[280]
'an army of the Roman people is besieging Gnaeus Pompey, is keeping him fenced in (has fenced him in) with a ditch and wall, and preventing him from fleeing'
The future perfect of this idiom is made with Latin: habēbō:
Latin: sed iam dē epistulīs satis '''dictum habēbō''', sī hoc ūnum addiderō (Apuleius)[281]
'but I will have said enough about the letters if I add this one thing'
A pluperfect can similarly be made using one of the three past tenses of Latin: habeō:[282]
Latin: Caesar equitātum omnem quem ex omnī prōvinciā '''coāctum habēbat''' praemittit (Caesar)[283]
'Caesar sent ahead all the cavalry which he had gathered together from the whole province'
Latin: cultrum, quem sub veste '''abditum habēbat''', eum in corde dēfīgit (Livy)[284]
'a knife, which she had hidden / was keeping hidden under her clothing, she stabbed it in her heart'
Latin: ad eās mūnītiōnēs Caesar Lentulum Marcellīnum quaestōrem ... '''positum habebat''' (Caesar)[285]
'Caesar had placed Lentulus Marcellinus the quaestor in charge of those defences'
Latin: in montibus castra '''habuit posita''' Pompeius in cōnspectū utrōrumque oppidōrum (de Bello Hispaniensi)[286]
'Pompeius had placed a camp in the mountains within sight of both towns'
Latin: itaque nāvīs omnīs quās '''parātās habuerant''' ad nāvigandum prōpugnātōribus īnstrūxērunt (de Bello Alexandrino)[287]
'and so they drew up and manned with fighters all the ships which they had earlier got ready for sailing'
Formation
Active verbs form their present subjunctive in -em, -am, or -im, depending on the verb, as follows:
Irregular verbs:
The subjunctive mood has a variety of uses in Latin. It can be optative (used in wishes), jussive ('should', 'is to'), or potential ('would', 'could', 'may', 'might').[288] [289] It is also frequently used in indirect speech, in causal clauses, in circumstantial clauses after Latin: cum 'when' in past time, and when imagining a hypothetical situation. The negative of the potential subjunctive is Latin: nōn, and the negative of the optative and jussive subjunctive is Latin: nē.
The present subjunctive very frequently describes an event which the speaker wishes, commands, or suggests should happen at a future time:
Latin: utinam illam diem '''videam'''! (Cicero)[290]
'I hope I may see that day!'
Latin: '''vīvāmus''', mea Lesbia, atque '''amēmus''' (Catullus)[291]
'let's live, my Lesbia, and let's love'
Latin: '''sedeat''' hīc (Gellius)[292]
'let him sit here!'
The negative of this meaning is Latin: nē:[293]
Latin: '''nē vīvam''' sī sciō (Cicero)[294]
'may I not live if I know!'
Latin: '''exeant''', '''proficīscantur''', '''nē patiantur''' dēsideriō suī Catilīnam miserum tābēscere (Cicero)[295]
'let them go out, let them depart; let them not allow poor Catiline to waste away with desire for them!'
Usually, the jussive subjunctive is used in the 2nd person only when the person is indefinite:[296]
Latin: '''exoriāre''', aliquis nostrīs ex ossibus ultor! (Virgil)[297]
'may you arise, some avenger, from our bones!'
However, in the following example from Plautus, the 2nd person is used for politeness when a young slave girl is talking to a man:
Latin: (Trachāliō:) ego eo intrō, nisi quid vīs. – (Ampelisca:) '''eās'''. (Plautus)[298]
'I'm going inside, unless there's anything you want.' – 'Please go.'
In the following, the speaker is talking to himself:
Latin: miser Catulle, '''dēsinās''' ineptīre! (Catullus)[299]
'wretched Catullus, you should stop being foolish!'
The present subjunctive is also used in deliberative questions (which are questions which expect an imperative answer):[300]
Latin: dē Pompeiō quid '''agam'''? (Cicero)[301]
'what action should I take about Pompey?'
Another use of the present subjunctive is concessive:[302]
Latin: '''sit''' fūr; ... at est bonus imperātor (Cicero)[303]
'he may be a thief; nonetheless he is a good general!'
In philosophical discourse, the present subjunctive represents a hypothetical situation which is imagined as happening at an indefinite time:
Latin: '''vēndat''' aedēs vir bonus (Cicero)[304]
'let us suppose that a good man is selling a house'
In an 'ideal' conditional clause, the speaker imagines a hypothetical event or situation in the future. The negative of this meaning is Latin: nōn:
Latin: hanc viam sī asperam esse '''negem''', '''mentiar''' (Cicero)[305]
'if I were to deny that this road is a rough one, I would be lying'
Latin: haec sī tēcum patria '''loquātur''', nōnne impetrāre '''debeat'''? (Cicero)[306]
'if your country were to say this to you, wouldn't it be right for her to be granted her request?'
In early Latin, a present subjunctive can also be used to make an unreal conditional referring to the present:[307]
Latin: haud '''rogem''' tē, sī '''sciam''' (Plautus)[308]
'I wouldn't be asking you, if I knew'
However, there was a gradual shift in usage, and in the classical period, and even sometimes in Plautus, the imperfect subjunctive is used in such clauses.
Occasionally in poetry a present subjunctive can be used to refer to an unreal past event, where in prose a pluperfect subjunctive would be used in both halves of the sentence:[309]
Latin: nī docta comes '''admoneat''', '''inruat''' et frūstrā ferrō '''dīverberet''' umbrās (Virgil)[310]
'if his learned companion had not warned him, Aeneas would have rushed in and would have beaten aside the ghosts with his sword in vain'
In a conditional clause of comparison ('as if...') the use of tenses is different from the normal unreal conditional clause. Here the main clause is in the indicative or imperative, and the 'if'-clause follows the sequence of tenses rule, with present or perfect subjunctive for an imaginary present situation, and imperfect or pluperfect for an imaginary past one:
Latin: nōlī timēre quasi assem elephantō '''dēs''' (Quintilian)[311]
'don't be nervous as if you were giving a penny to an elephant'
Latin: ūtor tam bene quam mihī '''parārim'''[312]
'I use them just as well as (if) I had bought them for myself'
When a conditional sentence expresses a generalisation, the present subjunctive is used for any 2nd person singular verb, whether in the subordinate clause or the main clause:[313]
Latin: ferrum sī '''exerceās''' conteritur (Cato)[314]
'if you use iron a lot, it gets worn away'
Latin: (senectūs) plēna est voluptātis, sī illā '''sciās''' ūtī (Seneca)[315]
'old age is full of pleasure, if you know how to enjoy it'
Latin: quom inopia est, '''cupiās''' (Plautus)[316]
'whenever there's a shortage of something, you want it'
One of the most common uses of the subjunctive is to indicate reported speech (or implied reported speech). After a present tense main verb, the present subjunctive is usual, for example in the following indirect command:
Latin: nūntium mittit ut '''veniant''' (Livy)[317]
'she sends a messenger (to say) that they should come'
When a question is made indirect, the verb is always changed into the subjunctive mood, as in the following example:
Latin: quārē id '''faciam''', fortasse requīris? (Catullus)[139]
'do you perhaps ask why I do that?'
After Latin: dubitō quīn, if the context is clearly future, a present or imperfect subjunctive can sometimes represent a future tense or potential subjunctive:[318]
Latin: haec sī ēnūntiāta Ariovistō sint, nōn dubitāre quīn dē omnibus supplicium '''sūmat''' (Caesar)[319]
'they said that if these things were reported to Ariovistus, they didn't doubt that he would put them all to death'
Similarly in the protasis ('if' clause) of a conditional sentence in indirect speech, a present subjunctive can represent an original future indicative:[320]
Latin: nisī '''dēcēdat''' atque exercitum '''dēdūcat''', sēsē illum prō hoste habitūrum (Caesar)[321]
'(Ariovistus told Caesar that) if he did not retreat and withdraw his army, he would treat him as an enemy'
In other examples in reported speech, the subjunctive in the 'if' clause represents an original present subjunctive with potential meaning:
Latin: voluptātem, sī ipsa prō sē '''loquātur''', concessūram arbitror dignitātī (Cicero)[322]
'I believe that Pleasure, if she were to speak for herself, would give way to Dignity'
In Latin a clause of fearing is constructed like a negative wish ("may it not happen!"). For this reason fears usually start with the negative particle Latin: nē.[323] If the speaker fears that something may not happen, the two negatives Latin: nē and Latin: nōn can be combined:
Latin: timeō nē '''nōn impetrem''' (Cicero)[324]
'I am afraid that I may not be granted my wish'
The present subjunctive is also used in purpose clauses with Latin: ut such as the following:[325]
Latin: oportet ēsse<ref>{{lang|la|ēsse (Rhētorica ad Herennium)[326]
'you should eat so that you can live, not live so that you can eat'
The present subjunctive may also be used in consecutive clauses following a present tense verb:
Latin: ā dūcendā autem uxōre sīc abhorret ut līberō lectulō '''neget''' esse quicquam iūcundius (Cicero)[327]
'he finds the idea of marrying so abhorrent that he denies there is anything more pleasant than a single bed'
After the word Latin: forsitan 'perhaps' and occasionally after Latin: fortasse 'perhaps', the present subjunctive can mean 'may' or 'could', expressing a possibility. The first example below uses the present subjunctive, and the second the perfect:[328]
Latin: dūrum hoc fortasse '''videātur''' (Cicero)[329]
'this may perhaps seem harsh'
A relative clause which is indefinite uses the subjunctive mood in Latin. This is known as a generic relative clause:
Latin: at etiam sunt quī '''dīcant''', Quirītes, ā mē ēiectum in exilium esse Catilīnam (Cicero)[330]
'but there are also some who are saying, Roman citizens, that it was by me that Catiline was sent into exile'
The subjunctive mood is also used in clauses which have a causal meaning ('in view of the fact that'), such as after causal Latin: cum. Any tense can be used including the present:
Latin: quae cum ita '''sint''' (Cicero)[331]
'since these things are so'
Formation
The imperfect subjunctive, even in passive and deponent verbs, looks like an active infinitive with an ending:
Irregular verbs:
Passive and deponent verbs:
Usage
The imperfect subjunctive is used in situations similar to the present subjunctive above, but in a past-time context.
The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives can describe something which should have been done in the past, but which it is now too late for:[332] [333]
Latin: at tū dictīs, Albāne, '''manērēs'''! (Virgil)[334]
'you should have remained true to your words, o Alban!'
Latin: '''morerētur''', inquiēs (Cicero)[335]
'he should have died, you will say'
Latin: quid '''facerem'''? (Virgil)[336]
'what was I to do?'
This usage is quite common in Plautus[337] but rare in later Latin. The normal prose practice is to use either a past tense of Latin: dēbeō 'I have a duty to' or Latin: oportet 'it is proper' with the infinitive, or else a gerundive with a past tense of Latin: sum.
The imperfect subjunctive can also be used to represent an imagined or wished for situation in present time:[338]
Latin: utinam Servius Sulpicius '''vīveret'''! (Cicero)[339]
'if only Servius Sulpicius were alive (now)!'
In a conditional clause representing an unreal situation in present time, the imperfect subjunctive is used in both clauses:
Latin: '''scrīberem''' ad tē dē hōc plūra, sī Rōmae '''essēs''' (Cicero)[340]
'I would write more about this to you, if you were in Rome'
Latin: Sicilia tōta, sī ūnā vōce '''loquerētur''', hoc '''dīceret''' (Cicero)[341]
'if the whole of Sicily were speaking with one voice, she would say this'
Latin: sī intus '''esset''', '''ēvocārem''' (Plautus)[342]
'if he were inside, I would call him out'
Sometimes, however, an imperfect subjunctive refers to an unreal situation in the past rather than the present:[343]
Latin: hic sī mentis '''esset''' suae, '''ausus esset''' ēdūcere exercitum? (Cicero)[344]
'if this man had been in his right mind (at that time), would he have dared to lead out an army?'
The 2nd person imperfect subjunctive when potential is nearly always indefinite and generalising, i.e. an imaginary 'you':[345]
Latin: '''crēderēs''' victōs (Livy)[346]
'you would have believed them beaten'
In a conditional clause of comparison, the imperfect subjunctive indicates an imagined situation not at the present time but contemporary with the main verb:
Latin: tantus metus patrēs cēpit velut sī iam ad portās hostis '''esset''' (Livy)[347]
'fear overcame the senators as great as if the enemy were already at the gates'
For other examples of this see Latin conditional clauses#Conditional clauses of comparison.
In indirect questions in a historic context, an imperfect subjunctive usually represents the transformation of a present indicative.[348] In the examples below the imperfect subjunctive represents a situation which is contemporary with the main verb:
Latin: quaesīvit salvusne '''esset''' clipeus (Cicero)[349]
'Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe'
Latin: nec dubitavēre Persae, quīn Issō relictā Macedones '''fugerent''' (Curtius)[350]
'nor did the Persians doubt that, now that Issus had been abandoned, the Macedonians were fleeing'
In other sentences, however, the imperfect subjunctive is prospective; that is, it represents an action which is future relative to the main verb:[351] (In indirect sentences of this kind there is in fact no difference between the vivid future and the ideal future conditional.)[352]
Latin: nec, sī illa '''restituerētur''', dubitāvī quīn mē sēcum '''redūceret''' (Cicero)[353]
'and I didn't doubt that, if the republican government were restored, it would bring me back with it'
Latin: quiētūrus haud dubiē, nisī ultrō Etrūscī arma '''inferrent''' (Livy)[354]
'with the intention of remaining inactive no doubt, unless (at some future time) the Etruscans were to attack of their own accord'
The imperfect subjunctive is also used for indirect commands, clauses of fearing or indirect questions after a main verb in the past tense:
Latin: imperāvit eī ut omnēs forēs aedificiī '''circumīret''' (Nepos)[355]
'he gave him an order that he should go round all the doors of the building'
Latin: Lacedaemoniī lēgātōs Athēnās mīsērunt, quī eum absentem '''accusārent''' (Nepos)[356]
'the Spartans sent ambassadors to Athens in order to accuse him in his absence'
Latin: verēns nē '''dēderētur''', Crētam vēnit (Nepos)[357]
'fearing that he might be handed over to the Romans, he came to Crete'
Latin: metuēns nē sī cōnsulum iniussū '''īret''', forte dēprehēnsus ā custōdibus Rōmānīs '''retraherētur''', senātum adit (Livy)[358]
'fearing that if he were to go without the permission of the consuls, he might be caught and dragged back by the Roman guards, he approached the senate'
It can also have a prospective or future meaning in a relative clause:[359]
Latin: ante lūcem vōta ea quae numquam '''solveret''' nūncupāvit (Cicero)[360]
'before dawn he announced those vows which he was never to fulfil'
After verbs meaning 'it happened that...', the imperfect subjunctive is always used even of a simple perfective action, which, if the grammatical construction did not require a subjunctive, would be expressed by a perfect indicative:[361]
Latin: accidit ut ūnā nocte omnēs Hermae '''dēicerentur''' praeter ūnum (Nepos)[362]
'it happened that in a single night all the statues of Hermes were thrown down except one'
Following Latin: cum 'when, while', however, the imperfect subjunctive has the meaning of an imperfect indicative. This is very common:
Latin: cum '''sedērem''', inquit, domī trīstis, accurrit Venerius (Cicero)[54]
'while I was sitting at home in a sad mood,' he said, 'Venerius came running up'
Latin: cum per lītora lentīs passibus, ut soleō, summā '''spatiārer''' harēnā, vīdit et incaluit pelagī deus (Ovid)[363]
'when I was strolling with slow steps along the beach, as I often do, at the top of the sand, the god of the sea saw me and fell in love'
Formation
Passive and deponent verbs:
The form with Latin: sim is more common in the classical period. In some cases there is a difference in meaning between the two forms (see below).
Usage
The perfect subjunctive sometimes expresses a wish for the past, leaving open the possibility that it may have happened:
Latin: utinam vērē '''augurāverim''' (Cicero)[364]
'may I have prophesied correctly!'
Latin: forsitan temerē '''fēcerim''' (Cicero)[365]
'perhaps I have acted rashly'
It can also be used in a concessive meaning:
Latin: '''fuerit''' aliīs; tibī quandō esse coepit? (Cicero)[366]
'he may have been so to others; when did begin to be so to you?'
The perfect subjunctive can also be used in a wish for the future, but this use is described as 'archaic'.[367]
Latin: quod dī ōmen '''averterint'''! (Cicero)[368]
'but may the gods avert this omen!'
With the negative particle Latin: nē the perfect subjunctive can express a negative command:
Latin: '''nē''' ... mortem '''timuerītis'''[369]
'you should not fear death'
Sometimes the perfect subjunctive refers to present or future time, and means 'could'.[370] For example, in the following idiom the perfect is usual:
Latin: nōn facile '''dīxerim''' quicquam mē vīdisse pulchrius (Cicero)[371]
'I couldn't easily say (= I don't think) that I have ever seen anything more beautiful'
In the following sentence both 'could' and 'could have' are possible:[338]
Latin: ad sexāgintā captōs '''scrīpserim''', sī auctōrem Graecum sequar (Livy)[372]
'I could have written that the number of captives was as many as sixty, if I were to follow the Greek authority'
In other examples, however, the perfect subjunctive definitely refers to the past and means 'could have done' or 'would have done':[373]
Latin: quī ambō saltūs eum ... ad Libuōs Gallōs '''dēdūxerint''' (Livy)[374]
'either of these passes would have brought (Hannibal) down to the Libuan Gauls'
The perfect tense may also (but rarely) sometimes be used in an ideal condition, describing an imagined hypothetical situation in the future:[375]
Latin: Cicerōnī nēmo ducentōs nunc '''dederit''' nummōs, nisi '''fulserit''' ānulus ingēns (Juvenal)[376]
'these days (if he were to come back to life) no one would give Cicero even two hundred coins, unless a huge ring glittered (on his finger)'
Latin: sī nunc mē suspendam, meīs inimīcīs voluptātem '''creāverim''' (Plautus)[377]
'if I were to hang myself now, I would simply end up having given pleasure to my enemies'
In the following sentence, in which a conditional clause is used in reported speech, the perfect subjunctive is equivalent to a future perfect indicative in Latin: oratio recta:
Latin: haec sī '''ēnūntiāta''' Ariovistō '''sint''', nōn dubitāre quīn dē omnibus supplicium sūmat (Caesar)[33]'they said that if these things were reported to Ariovistus, they didn't doubt that he would put them all to death'
The perfect subjunctive is also found in subordinate clauses in indirect statements, usually when the main verb is in the present tense. This also applies to when the indirect speech is only implied rather than explicit, as in the following sentences:
Latin: Caesar mihī ignōscit per litterās quod nōn '''vēnerim''' (Cicero)[378]
'Caesar is pardoning me by means of a letter for the fact that I didn't come'
Latin: mea māter īrāta est quia nōn '''redierim''' (Plautus)[379]
'my mother is angry because I didn't return'
The perfect subjunctive usually represents what would be a perfect indicative in an independent clause. However, since there is no way of expressing an imperfect tense in primary sequence except using the perfect subjunctive, it could also sometimes represent an imperfect indicative.[380]
Latin: ex eō facile conicī poterit, quam cārus suīs '''fuerit''' (Nepos)[381]
'from this it will be easily conjectured how dear he was to his people'
Latin: quid lēgātī '''ēgerint''' nōndum scīmus (Cicero)[382]
'we do not yet know what the ambassadors have done' (or 'were doing', or 'did')
Latin: '''steterim''' an '''sēderim''' nesciō (Seneca the Elder)[383]
'I don't know whether I was standing or sitting'
Phrases of the kind Latin: nōn dubitō 'I do not doubt' are usually followed by Latin: quīn (literally 'how not') and the subjunctive, much like an indirect question:
Latin: nōn dubitō quīn occupātissimus '''fuerīs''' (Cicero)[384]
'I have no doubt that you were very busy' (original Latin: erās or Latin: fuistī)
In consecutive (result) clauses, the sequence of tenses rule is not so strictly adhered to. For example, in the following, the perfect subjunctive Latin: vīderit is used, despite the fact that the main verb is historic:
Latin: eō ūsque sē praebēbat patientem atque impigrum ut eum nēmō umquam in equō sedentem '''vīderit''' (Cicero)[202]
'he showed himself to be so tough and energetic that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse'
The subjunctive is also used in various types of relative clause. The following is an explanatory relative clause ('inasmuch as' or 'in view of the fact that'):[385]
Latin: mē caecum quī haec ante '''nōn vīderim'''! (Cicero)[386]
'I must be blind that I didn't see this before!'
The following is generic or indefinite:
Latin: nēmō Lilybaeī fuit quīn '''vīderit''' (Cicero)[387]
'there was no one in Lilybaeum who did not see it'
The following is a restrictive relative clause:[385]
Latin: Catōnis ōrātiōnēs, quās quidem '''invēnerim''' (Cicero)[388]
'the speeches of Cato, at least such as I have discovered'
The perfect subjunctive with Latin: fuerim is more common than the perfect indicative with Latin: fuī. In the Augustan-period writers Hyginus and Vitruvius nearly a third of perfect subjunctives are double ones, and in Egeria's writing (4th century AD) it completely replaced the perfect subjunctive with Latin: sim.[389]
Latin: nocēns, nisī '''accūsātus fuerit''', condemnārī non potest (Cicero)[390]
'a guilty man cannot be condemned unless he has first been accused'
In the following examples, the perfect subjunctives with Latin: fuerit contrast with the ordinary perfect subjunctive tenses, and apparently refer to an earlier event:
Latin: id utrum parum ex intervallō '''sit cōnspectum''', an dolus aliquis '''suspectus fuerit''', incompertum est (Livy)[391]
'whether this was noticed too late, or whether (before it was noticed) some trick was suspected, is unknown'
Latin: id utrum suā sponte '''fēcerint''' an quia '''mandātum''' ita '''fuerit''' nōn certum est (Livy)[392]
'whether they did this of their own accord or whether it was because they already had instructions to do so is not certain'
In the following example, however, the tense may have been chosen simply for euphony rather than meaning:
Latin: hāc Trōiana tenus '''fuerit''' fortūna '''secūta''' (Virgil)[393]
'may it turn out that Trojan ill-fortune has followed us this far, no further!'
Formation
Irregular verbs:
Passive and deponent verbs:
The form with Latin: essem is more common than Latin: fuissem in the classical period. In some cases there is a difference in meaning between the two forms (see below).
Occasionally a shortened form of the pluperfect subjunctive active is found, e.g. Latin: ērēpsēmus for Latin: ērēpsissēmus. Scholars are unclear whether this is an archaic survival or whether it is merely a "syncopated" (shortened) form of the usual tense. (For examples, see below.)
The pluperfect subjunctive can be used to make a wish which cannot now be fulfilled about a situation in the past:
Latin: utinam ille omnīs sēcum suās cōpiās '''ēduxisset'''! (Cicero)[394]
'if only he had led out all his forces with him!'
Sometimes Latin: velim or Latin: vellem 'I would that' is used instead of Latin: utinam. In the following sentence, the imperfect subjunctive Latin: vellem is used to wish for something that cannot now come true, while the present subjunctive Latin: velim leaves open the possibility that it may be true:
Latin: dē Menedēmō '''vellem''' vērum '''fuisset''', dē rēgīnā '''velim''' vērum '''sit'''. (Cicero)[395]
'I wish it had been true about Menedemus; I hope it may be true about the queen'
The jussive pluperfect is also fairly uncommon. The following examples are from Cicero, again using the negative Latin: nē:[396]
Latin: '''nē popōscissēs''' (Cicero)[397]
'you shouldn't have asked'
Latin: quid facere dēbuistī? pecūniam '''rettulissēs''', frūmentum '''nē ēmissēs''' (Cicero)[398]
'what was it your duty to do? you ought to have returned the money, you ought not to have bought the corn'
In the following sentence, using the pluperfect subjunctive, according to one view, Queen Dido contemplates what 'might have been':[399]
Latin: facēs in castra '''tulissem''' '''implēssem'''que forōs flammīs (Virgil)[400]
'I could have carried torches into the camp and filled the gangways with flames'
Others see the pluperfect subjunctive in this sentence as a wish ('if only I had carried!'); others again as jussive ('I ought to have carried!').[401]
The pluperfect subjunctive in conditional clauses is used for referring to unreal events in past time. This usage is found as early as Plautus:[338]
Latin: sī '''appellāssēs''', '''respondisset''' (Plautus)[402]
'if you had called him, he would have replied'
It is also possible for the protasis to be imperfect subjunctive, and the apodosis pluperfect subjunctive, or the other way round, as in the following examples:
Latin: quid '''facerēs''', sī amīcum '''perdidissēs'''? (Seneca)[403]
'how would you react, if you had lost a friend?'
Latin: ergō egō nisī '''peperissem''', Rōma '''nōn oppugnārētur'''; nisī fīlium '''habērem''', lībera in līberā patriā '''mortua essem''' (Livy)[404]
'therefore if I had not given birth, Rome would not now be being attacked; if I did not have a son, I would have died as a free woman in a free country'
Another very common use of the pluperfect subjunctive is in a circumstantial Latin: cum-clause. Here Latin: cum tends to have the meaning "after X happened", equivalent to Latin: postquam with the perfect indicative:
Latin: quod cum '''audīvisset''', accurrisse Rōmam dīcitur (Cicero)[405]
'when he heard this, he is said to have hurried to Rome'
In indirect speech, the pluperfect subjunctive is often a transformation of a perfect indicative in direct speech.[318] In the following example, the original direct question would have had the perfect tense (Latin: fuistī):
Latin: quaesīvī ā Catilīnā, in nocturnō conventū apud M. Laecam '''fuisset''' necne (Cicero)[406]
'I asked Catiline whether he had been at a night-time meeting at Marcus Laeca's house or not'
In some sentences, the pluperfect subjunctive is a reflection of an original imperfect indicative, as in the following example, where the original verbs would have been Latin: mīlitābāmus and Latin: habēbāmus:[407]
Latin: [dīxit eōs] id tantum dēprecārī, nē īnferiōrēs iīs ordinēs quam quōs cum '''mīlitāssent''' '''habuissent''' adtribuantur (Livy)[408]
'[he said] that they begged just one favour, that they should be not assigned lower ranks than those which they had held when they were on military service'
In other sentences in indirect speech, the pluperfect subjunctive is a transformation of a future perfect indicative, put into historic sequence. The original words of the following sentence would have been Latin: tū, sī aliter '''fēcerīs''', iniūriam Caesarī faciēs 'if you do (will have done) otherwise, you will be doing Caesar a disservice':
Latin: eum, sī aliter '''fēcisset''', iniūriam Caesarī factūrum dīxit (Cicero)[409]
'he said that if the man were to do otherwise, he would be doing Caesar a disservice'
Latin: in hōc discrīmine lūdōs Iovī, sī '''fūdisset cecīdissetque''' hostīs, prōpraetor vōvit (Livy)[410]
'at this critical moment in the battle, the propraetor vowed games to Jupiter, if he routed and slaughtered the enemies'
A shortened or "syncopated" form of the pluperfect subjunctive ending in -sem instead of -sissem is sometimes found, although it is not very common. The following comes from Horace's well-known account of his journey to Brundisium:
Latin: (montēs) ... quōs nunquam '''ērēpsēmus''', nisi nōs vīcīna Trivīcī vīlla recēpisset (Horace)[411]
'(mountains) which we would never have crawled to the end of, had not a nearby villa in Trivicum welcomed us'
Another example comes from Plautus:
Latin: dīs hercle habeō grātiam, nam ni '''intellexēs''', numquam, crēdo, āmitterēs! (Plautus)[412]
'thank God you understand, for if you hadn't understood, you would never let the subject drop, I'm sure!'
In the following example, the subjunctive is used to indicate indirect speech:
Latin: postquam '''recessēt''' vīta patriō corpore, agrum sē vēndidisse (Plautus)[413]
'he told me that as soon as the life had left his father's body, he had sold his farm'
The following from Virgil describes what might have been, or should have been:
Latin: nātumque patremque cum genere '''extīnxem''' (Virgil)[414]
'I could have (or should have) extinguished son and father along with their family!'
R. D. Williams describes the following example as "jussive":
Latin: '''vīxet''' cui vītam deus aut sua dextra dedisset (Virgil)[415]
'he, to whom either God or his own right hand had given life, should have lived'
Like the pluperfect indicative with Latin: fueram, the pluperfect subjunctive with Latin: fuissem sometimes refers to an earlier time, which is now over. In the following example, Cicero contrasts the time when Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured Syracuse (3rd century BC) with the period when Gaius Verres was governor of Sicily (73–70 BC):
Latin: portum Syrācūsānōrum, quī tum et nostrīs classibus et Carthāginiēnsium '''clausus fuisset''', eum istō praetōre Cilicum myoparōnī praedōnibusque patuisse (Cicero)[416]
'the harbour of the Syracusans, which at that time had been closed both to our fleets and to the Carthaginians', in the period of Verres' praetorship was laid wide open to a pirate vessel of Cilicians and to robbers'
However, in the following examples, there appears to be little or no difference in meaning between the pluperfect with Latin: fuisset and that with Latin: esset, and difference is perhaps only one of style:
Latin: quās ego exspectāssem Brundisiī, sī '''esset licitum''' per nautās (Cicero)[417]
'I would have waited for your letter at Brundisium, if it had been permitted by the sailors'
Latin: sī per tuās legiōnēs mihi '''licitum fuisset''' venīre in senātum ..., fēcissem (Cicero)[418]
'if it had been permitted to me by your legions to come to the senate, I would have done so'
Because the feminine participle + Latin: fuisset makes a suitable ending for a hexameter, it is possible that in the following examples the double pluperfect is merely used for metrical convenience, rather than indicating an anterior time. In the first example, which is spoken by the ghost of Hector to Aeneas, encouraging him to flee from Troy, the tense with Latin: fuissent refers to an earlier time when Hector was still alive:
Latin: sī Pergama dextrā dēfendī possent, etiam hāc '''dēfēnsa fuissent''' (Virgil)[419]
'if Troy could be defended by anyone's right hand, it would have been defended (while I was still alive) even by this one'
The following unfulfillable wish also uses the double pluperfect subjunctive passive:
Latin: vellem haud '''correpta fuisset''' mīlitiā tālī, cōnāta lacessere Teucrōs (Virgil)[420]
'I wish she had never been seized by such love of warfare or attempted to provoke the Trojans!'
Another example comes from Ovid, referring to the time before the Trojan War started:
Latin: nisi '''rapta fuisset''' Tyndaris, Eurōpae pāx Asiaeque foret (Ovid)[421]
'if Tyndareus' daughter had not previously been raped, there would be peace between Europe and Asia'
In the following example Ovid describes the fate of the Athenian princess Aglauros, who was turned to stone out of envy for her sister:
Latin: nec cōnāta loquī est, nec, sī '''cōnāta fuisset''', vōcis habēbat iter (Ovid)[422]
'she did not try to speak, nor, even if she had tried, would she have had any way of speaking'
The verb Latin: sum 'I am',as well as its infinitive Latin: esse 'to be', has a future infinitive Latin: fore, equivalent to Latin: futūrum esse. From this is formed a subjunctive Latin: forem. This is not used in Caesar, but is common in Livy, Sallust, and Nepos.[423] It is used especially in conditional sentences,[424] either in the protasis ('if' clause) or the apodosis (main clause), and it generally has either a potential or future-in-the past meaning. However, occasionally it seems to be simply a variation on the imperfect subjunctive Latin: essem.
One use of Latin: forem is in indirect speech after Latin: sī 'if' as the equivalent of the future indicative Latin: erit in the original direct speech:
Latin: imperat Tullus utī iuventūtem in armīs habeat: ūsūrum sē eōrum operā sī bellum cum Veientibus '''foret''' (Livy)[425]
'Tullus ordered him to keep the young men armed; he would need their help if (at some future time) there was a war with the people of Veii'
Latin: sī summus '''foret''', futūrum brevem (Cicero)[426]
'(he was confident) that even if (the pain) were to be very great, it would be brief'
It can also be used with a future-in-the-past meaning in sentences like the following, which are not conditional but indirect speech:
Latin: multō sē in suō lectulō (morī) mālle, quicquid '''foret''' (Cicero)[427]
'he said that he would far rather die in his own bed, whatever might happen in future'
Latin: idque eō dīcitur fēcisse, quō inter sē fīdī magis '''forent''' (Sallust)[428]
'and it is said that he did this so that (in future) they would be more trustworthy to one other'
Latin: pars stāre incertī utrum prōgredī an regredī in castra tūtius '''foret''' (Livy)[429]
'some were standing still, uncertain whether it would be safer to go forward or to retreat into the camp'
Latin: Aristotelēs respondit factūrum esse quod vellent, cum id sibī '''foret''' tempestīvum (Gellius)[430]
'Aristotle replied that he would do what they wanted when it was a suitable time for him'
In the following sentence the imperfect is typical of letter-writing. An English writer would say 'I have no doubt that he will be...':
Latin: mihī dubium non erat quīn ille iam iamque '''foret''' in Āpūliā (Cicero)[431]
'(at the time of writing this) I personally had no doubt that he would be in Apulia any moment now'
In other sentences, however, Latin: foret has no future meaning, but simply has the meaning of Latin: esset, as in the following example, where it appears to be used simply for metrical convenience as the equivalent of Latin: esset in the second half:
Latin: sī fraxinus esset, fulva colōre '''foret'''; sī cornus, nōdus '''inesset''' (Ovid)[432]
'if it were made of ash-wood, it would be light in colour; if cornel-wood, there would be a knot in it'
Unlike in clauses following Latin: nōn dubitō quīn, in indirect questions referring to a future time the periphrastic future subjunctive is regularly used:
Latin: quid ille '''factūrus sit''' incertum est (Cicero)[433]
'it is uncertain what he is going to do'
In indirect statements and questions, the active periphrastic future can represent a future or periphrastic future tense of direct speech in primary sequence. In this case there is not necessarily any idea of planning or intention, although there may be:[434]
Latin: tē ubī '''vīsūrus sim''', nesciō (Cicero)[435]
'I don't know when I'm going to see you'
Latin: quid agātis et ecquid in Italiam '''ventūrī sītis''' hāc hieme, fac plānē sciam (Cicero)[436]
'let me know in detail what you are doing and whether at all you'll be coming to Italy this winter'
This tense can also be used in primary sequence reported speech, to represent the main clause in either an ideal conditional sentence or a simple future one (the distinction between these two disappears in indirect speech):[437]
Latin: quem adhūc nōs quidem vīdimus nēminem; sed philosophōrum sententiīs, quālis hic '''futūrus sit''', sī modō aliquandō fuerit, expōnitur (Cicero)[438]
'we ourselves have never seen such a (perfectly wise) man; but it is explained in the opinions of philosophers what such a person would be like, if one were ever to exist'
To avoid ambiguity, the periphrastic future can also be used after Latin: nōn dubitō quīn 'I don't doubt that...' when the meaning is future, although this is not as common as in indirect questions:
Latin: nōn dubitō quīn in Formiānō '''mānsūrus sīs''' (Cicero)[439]
'I have no doubt you are planning to remain (in the villa) at Formiae'
The same meaning is expressed in indirect questions in a past context:
Latin: exspectābant hominēs quidnam '''āctūrus esset''' (Cicero)[440]
'people were waiting to see what exactly he was going to do'
If the main verb is in past time, an imperfect version of the periphrastic future subjunctive is used:
Latin: dubitābam tū hās ipsās litterās '''essēs'''ne '''acceptūrus''' (Cicero)[441]
'I wasn't sure whether you were going to receive this letter'
It is also possible to form an imperfect periphrastic subjunctive with Latin: forem instead of Latin: essem (the first instance of this is in Sallust):[254]
Latin: dīcit sē vēnisse quaesītum ab eō, pācem an bellum '''agitātūrus foret''' (Sallust)[442]
'he said that he had come to ask him whether he was intending to make peace or war'
Latin: Ptolomaeum iussit ... Indōs clāmōre terrēre, quasi flūmen '''transnātūrus foret''' (Curtius)[443]
'he ordered Ptolemy to terrify the Indians with shouting, as if he was about to swim across the river'
A perfect periphrastic subjunctive can be used with a conditional meaning ('would have done') in hypothetical conditional clauses in indirect questions in primary sequence. In this case it represents a pluperfect subjunctive in the original direct speech:[444]
Latin: dīc agedum, Appī Claudī, quidnam '''factūrus fuerīs''', sī eō tempore cēnsor fuissēs? (Livy)
'tell us, Appius Claudius, what you would have done, if you had been censor at that time?'
Latin: an potest quisquam dubitāre quīn, sī Q. Ligārius in Italiā esse potuisset, in eādem sententiā '''futūrus fuerit''' in quā frātrēs fuērunt? (Cicero)[445]
'can anyone doubt that if Quintus Ligarius had been able to be in Italy, he would have been of the same opinion as his brothers were?'
In an indirect question, the perfect periphrastic subjunctive can also sometimes reflect a potential imperfect subjunctive:[444]
Latin: cōgitā quantum '''additūrus''' celeritātī '''fuerīs''', sī ā tergō hostis īnstāret (Seneca)[446]
'imagine how much speed you would be putting on, if an enemy were threatening you from behind!'
These tenses can be compared with the similar examples with the perfect periphrastic infinitive cited below, where a conditional sentence made in imperfect subjunctives is converted to an indirect statement.
The pluperfect version of the periphrastic subjunctive can be used in a circumstantial Latin: cum clause:
Latin: cum dē rē pūblicā '''relātūrus fuisset''', adlātō nūntiō dē legiōne quārtā mente concidit (Cicero)[447]
'when Antony had been about to bring some motion about the republic, a message suddenly arrived about the 4th legion and he lost his composure'
It can also be used in conditional sentences after Latin: sī, as in the following sentence from an imaginary letter from Helen to Paris:
Latin: hīs ego blanditiīs, sī '''peccātūra fuissem''', flecterer (Ovid)[448]
'by flatteries such as these, if I had been going to sin, I might have been persuaded'
Once in Cicero it occurs in the apodosis of an unreal conditional, referring to the inevitability of fate:
Latin: etiamsī obtemperāsset auspiciīs, idem '''ēventūrum fuisset'''; mūtārī enim fāta non possunt (Cicero)[449]
'even if he had obeyed the auspices, the same thing would have been destined to happen; for the fates cannot be changed'
It can also reflect a potential pluperfect subjunctive ('would have done') in historic sequence in an indirect question:[444]
Latin: subībat cōgitātiō animum quōnam modō tolerābilis '''futūra''' Etrūria '''fuisset''', sī quid in Samniō adversī ēvēnisset (Livy)[450]
'it occurred to them how impossible Etruria would have been, if anything had gone wrong in Samnium'
In some authors, such as Livy and Sallust, a potential meaning can be given to the pluperfect subjunctive passive by substituting Latin: foret for Latin: esset:
Latin: '''dēlētus'''que exercitus '''foret''' nī fugientēs silvae texissent (Livy)[451]
'and the army would have been annihilated if the woods hadn't provided cover for those who were fleeing'
Latin: '''obsessa'''que urbs '''foret''', nī Horātius cōnsul esset revocātus (Livy)[452]
'and the city would have been besieged, if the consul Horatius had not been recalled'
Latin: quod nī Catilīna mātūrāsset prō cūriā signum sociīs dare, eō diē post conditam urbem Rōmam pessumum facinus '''patrātum foret''' (Sallust)[453]
'but if Catiline had not been late in giving his allies a sign in front of the senate, on that day the worst crime in the history of Rome would have been committed'
In other authors, however, the same meaning is expressed using the ordinary pluperfect passive:
Latin: quod nisi nox proelium dirēmisset, tōtā classe hostium Caesar '''potītus esset''' ([Caesar])[454]
'but if night hadn't interrupted the battle, Caesar would have gained control of the whole enemy fleet'
When used in indirect speech, sometimes this tense is the equivalent of a future perfect passive in the original speech:
Latin: cōnsulātum petēbat spērāns, sī '''dēsignātus foret''', facile sē ex voluntāte Antōniō ūsūrum (Sallust)[455]
'he was seeking the consulship, hoping that if he should be elected he would easily manage Antony according to his pleasure'
Latin: timor inde patrēs incessit nē, sī '''dīmissus''' exercitus '''foret''', rūrsus coetūs occultī coniūrātiōnēsque fīerent (Livy)[456]
'the senators began to be afraid that if the army were dismissed, there would be further secret meetings and conspiracies'
Latin: nē, sī ab hostibus eae '''captae forent''', cōnsilia sua nōscerentur, epistulās id genus factās mittēbant (Gellius)[457]
'for fear that, if those letters were to be captured by the enemy, their plans might be known, they used to send letters made in this way'
Latin: puerum, prīmus Priamō quī '''foret''' postillā '''nātus''', temperāret tollere (Cicero)[458]
'the oracle told Priam that he should forbear to raise the first son who was going to be born to him subsequently'
Latin: tametsī ... vōbīs quod '''dictum foret''' scībāt factūrōs (Plautus)[459]
'although he knew that you would do whatever was (going to be) told to you'
In each of the above sentences, Latin: foret looks to the future, relative to a point in the past. In the following sentences, however, it has a past, not future, meaning:
Latin: sī utrumvīs hōrum unquam tibi '''vīsus forem''', nōn sīc lūdibriō tuīs factīs habitus essem (Terence)[460]
'if I had ever seemed either of these things to you, I wouldn't have been made a mockery of by your deeds in this way'
Latin: alius alium accusantes, quod, cum potuisset, non omnis '''submersa aut capta''' classis hostium '''foret''' (Livy)[461]
'blaming one another because, when it had been possible, not all the enemy fleet had been sunk or captured'
An archaic form of the subjunctive of Latin: sum is Latin: siem for Latin: sim, which is very common in Plautus and Terence, but fell out of use later:
Latin: scīs ubi '''siēt'''? (Terence)[462]
'do you know where she is?'
Less common is Latin: fuam, with the same meaning. This occurs occasionally in Plautus and also once in Lucretius (4.635) and once in Virgil's Aeneid, where the archaic form is presumably appropriate for the speech of the god Jupiter:
Latin: Trōs Rutulusne '''fuat''', nūllō discrīmine habēbō (Virgil)[463]
'whether it be Trojan or Rutulian, I shall make no distinction!'
Another old subjunctive is Latin: duim, from the verb Latin: dō 'I give'. It occurs mostly in Plautus and Terence, but sometimes also in Cicero, in phrases like the following:
Latin: dī tē '''perduint'''! (Plautus)[464]
'may the gods destroy you!'
From Latin: tangō, attingō 'I touch' comes a subjunctive Latin: attigās used by both Plautus and Terence:
Latin: '''ne attigās''' mē! (Plautus)[465]
'do not touch me!'
The idiomatic expression Latin: dumtaxat 'only, exactly, as far as concerns' is thought to preserve another archaic subjunctive of Latin: tango 'I touch'.[466]
In old Latin, a form of the subjunctive with -s-, known as the sigmatic aorist subjunctive, is preserved (Latin: faxim, servāssim etc.). One use of this is for wishes for the future:[467]
Latin: dī tē '''servāssint''' semper! (Plautus)[468]
'may the gods preserve you always!'
Latin: deī '''faxint''' ut liceat! (Cicero)[469]
'may the gods ensure that it be allowed'
Latin: id tē Iuppiter '''prohibessit'''! (Plautus)[470]
'may Jupiter protect you from that!'
In Plautus this subjunctive is also used in prohibitions, when it exists:[471]
Latin: '''nīl''' mē '''cūrāssīs'''! (Plautus)[472]
'don't worry about me!'
It also occurs once in Terence:
Latin: '''nē''' mē istōc posthāc nōmine '''appellāssīs'''! (Terence)[473]
'please don't call me by that name again!'
In other phrases it has a potential meaning and can be translated with 'would':
Latin: male '''faxim''' lubēns (Plautus)[474]
'I would willingly do him harm!'
Latin: nec satis sciō, nec, sī sciam, dīcere '''ausim''' (Livy)[475]
'I do not know exactly, nor, if I knew, would I dare to say'
Latin speakers used subjunctive verbs to report questions, statements, and ideas. When the verb of telling or asking in the dominant clause is primary, the subjunctive verb in the dependent clause must also be primary; when the verb in the dominant clause is secondary or historic, the subjunctive verb in the dependent clause must also be in a historic tense. This rule can be illustrated with the following table:[476] [477]
| Primary tenses | Present Future Future Perfect (Perfect) | Present subjunctive Perfect subjunctive | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Historic tenses | Perfect Imperfect Pluperfect Historic infinitive | Imperfect subjunctive Pluperfect subjunctive |
This rule applies to all kinds of sentences where the dependent verb is put in the subjunctive mood, for example indirect speech, indirect questions, indirect commands, purpose clauses, most consecutive clauses, clauses after verbs of fearing, Latin: quīn clauses and others. It does not apply to more loosely connected dependent clauses, such as relative clauses, where the verb is in the indicative.
The perfect tense appears in both rows, depending on whether it has a present perfect meaning ('have done', primary) or past simple meaning ('did', historic). But even when it has a present perfect meaning it is often treated as a historic tense (see further below).
It may be noted that although the perfect indicative is usually treated as a historic tense, the perfect subjunctive is usually treated as a primary one (but see exceptions below).
Examples of primary sequence
Present indicative + present subjunctive:
Latin: '''quaerunt''' ubī '''sit''' (Cicero)[478]
'they ask where it is'
Present subjunctive + present subjunctive:
Latin: '''velim''' vērum '''sit''' (Cicero)[395]
'I hope it is true'
Present imperative + periphrastic perfect subjunctive:
Latin: '''dīc''' quid '''factūrus fuerīs'''? (Livy)[479]
'tell us what you would have done'
Present indicative + Perfect subjunctive:
Latin: '''mīror''' quid causae '''fuerit''' quā rē cōnsilium '''mūtārīs''' (Cicero)[480]
'I wonder what the reason was that you changed your plan'
Examples of historic sequence
Imperfect indicative + imperfect subjunctive:
Latin: '''quaerēbātur''' ubī '''esset''' (Cicero)[481]
'people were asking where he was'
Imperfect subjunctive + pluperfect subjunctive:
Latin: '''vellem''' vērum '''fuisset''' (Cicero)[395]
'I wish it had been true'
Perfect indicative + imperfect subjunctive:
Latin: senātus '''dēcrēvit''' ut statim '''īret''' (Cicero)[482]
'the Senate decreed that he should go at once'
Historic infinitive + imperfect subjunctive:[483]
Latin: '''hortārī''', utī semper intentī parātīque '''essent''' (Sallust)[484]
'he constantly urged that they be always on their guard and prepared'
Perfect tense main verb
When the main verb is a perfect tense, it is usually considered to be a historic tense, as in the above example. Occasionally, however, when the meaning is that of an English present perfect, the perfect in a main clause may be taken as a primary tense, for example:[485]
Latin: nōndum satis '''cōnstituī''' molestiaene plūs an voluptātis '''attulerit''' Trebātius noster (Cicero)[113]
'I haven't yet quite made my mind up whether our friend Trebatius has brought me more trouble or pleasure'
Latin: mē '''praemīsit''' domum haec ut '''nūntiem''' uxōrī suae (Plautus)[486]
'he has sent me home ahead of him so that I can take this news to his wife'
However, the historic sequence after a perfect with present perfect meaning is also very common,[487] [488] for example:
Latin: '''extorsistī''' ut '''fatērer''' (Cicero)[489]
'you have compelled me to confess'
Latin: tandem '''impetrāvī''' '''abīret''' (Plautus)[490]
'at last I've got him to go away!'
Historic present main verb
When the main verb is a historic present, the dependent verb may be either primary or historic, but is usually primary:[483]
Latin: nuntium mittit ... ut '''veniant''' (Livy)[317]
'she sends a message that they should come' (both verbs primary)
Latin: lēgātōs mittunt quī pācem '''peterent''' (Livy)[491]
'they send ambassadors (who were) to ask for peace' (second verb historic)
Sometimes both primary and historic are found in the same sentence. In the following example the first dependent verb Latin: cūrat is primary sequence, but Latin: dīxisset is pluperfect:[488]
Latin: '''rogat''' ut '''cūrat''' quod '''dīxisset''' (Cicero)[492]
'he asked him to pay attention to what he had said'
Exceptions
There are frequent exceptions to the sequence of tenses rule, especially outside of indirect speech. For example, in the following sentence, a historic tense is followed by a perfect subjunctive:[488]
Latin: quis mīles '''fuit''' quī Brundisī illam non '''vīderit'''? (Cicero)[493]
'what soldier was there who did not see her in Brundisium?'
In consecutive clauses also, a perfect tense in the main clause is often followed by a present or a perfect subjunctive:[494]
Latin: [Siciliam Verrēs] per triennium ita '''vexāvit''' ut ea restituī in antīquum statum nōn '''possit''' (Cicero)[495]
'Verres so harried Sicily for three years that it cannot be restored to its original state.'
In indirect conditional sentences, the periphrastic perfect subjunctive often remains even after a historic-tense main verb:[496]
Latin: nec dubium erat quīn, sī possent, terga '''datūrī''' hostēs '''fuerint''' (Livy)[497]
'nor was there any doubt that if they had been able, the enemies would have turned their backs'
The perfect tense Latin: potuerim also can replace a pluperfect tense with the meaning 'could have' even after a historic verb:[498]
Latin: haud dubium fuit quīn, nisi ea mora intervēnisset, castra eō diē Pūnica '''capī potuerit''' (Livy)[497]
'there was no doubt that, if that delay had not intervened, the Carthaginian camp could have been captured on that day'
Caesar and Sallust can sometimes use a present subjunctive in historic sequence when the meaning is jussive (although this practice is not always followed):
Latin: respondit sī quid ab senātū petere vellent, ab armīs '''discēdant''' (Sallust)[499]
'he replied that if they wished to make any request from the Senate, they should disarm'
In general, in Livy, there is a tendency for a present or perfect tense of the original speech to be retained in historic sequence, while Cicero is more strict in following the historic sequence.[500]
When the main verb is primary, an imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive in a clause that is already subordinate in the original sentence may often remain:
Latin: '''dīc''' quid '''factūrus fuerīs''' sī cēnsor '''fuissēs'''? (Livy)[479]
'tell us what you would have done if you had been censor?'
In the following, a perfect subjunctive (a primary tense) is treated as if it were a perfect indicative (a historic tense), and so is followed by an imperfect subjunctive in the subordinate clause:[501]
Latin: sed tamen, quā rē '''acciderit''' ut ex meīs superiōribus litterīs id '''suspicārēre''' nesciō (Cicero)[502]
'but how it happened that you suspected this from my earlier letters, I don't know'
There are two main infinitive tenses, present and perfect (e.g. Latin: '''dūcere''' 'to lead' and Latin: '''dūxisse''' 'to have led'). However, a number of further infinitives are made periphrastically to represent other shades of meaning, such as future and potential, in indirect speech.
The infinitive tenses are similar to the subjunctive tenses, except that there is no distinction between primary and historic tenses. Thus corresponding to the present and imperfect subjunctive tenses Latin: dūcam / dūcerem is the present infinitive Latin: dūcere; corresponding to the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive Latin: dūxerim / dūxissem is the perfect infinitive Latin: dūxisse; corresponding to the future Latin: ductūrus sim / ductūrus essem is the future infinitive Latin: ductūrus esse; and corresponding to the potential Latin: ductūrus fuerim / ductūrus fuissem is the perfect potential infinitive Latin: ductūrus fuisse.
Irregular verbs:
Examples of deponent verbs are Latin: hortārī 'to encourage', Latin: pollicērī 'to promise', Latin: sequī 'to follow', Latin: egredī 'to come out', Latin: mentīrī 'to lie (tell a lie)'
In early Latin (especially Plautus), the passive and deponent infinitive often ends in -ier: Latin: vituperārier 'to be scolded', Latin: vidērier 'to be seen', Latin: nancīscier 'to obtain', Latin: expergīscier 'to wake up' etc.
An archaic form of the perfect active infinitive, ending in -se (Latin: '''dīxe''', '''dēspexe''', '''intellexe''', '''admisse''') is sometimes found in early Latin. There are also some rare archaic future infinitives ending in -ssere, e.g. Latin: '''oppugnāssere''', '''impetrāssere''' and others.
Compound infinitives are made using a participle or gerundive, combined with Latin: esse, fuisse or Latin: fore. Since they are common in the accusative and infinitive construction, usually the participle is in the accusative case, as in most of the examples below. Occasionally, however, the participle is found in the nominative, for example with Latin: dīcitur 'he is said' or Latin: vidētur 'he seems':
Latin: '''ventūrus esse''' dīcitur (Cicero)[503]
'he is said to be planning to come'
The participle can also change to show gender and plurality, as in the following where Latin: factās is feminine plural:
Latin: īnsidiās '''factās esse''' cōnstat (Cicero)[504]
'it is agreed that an ambush was made'
However, the passive future infinitive (Latin: ductum īrī) is made using the supine of the verb. The -um therefore stays constant and does not change for gender or number.
The future infinitive is used only for indirect statements.[505]
Often the Latin: esse part of a compound infinitive is omitted when combined with a participle or gerundive:
Latin: frātrem '''interfectum''' audīvit (Seneca)[506]
'he heard that his brother had been killed'
Latin: '''cōnandum''' sibī aliquid Pompeius exīstimāvit (Caesar)[507]
'Pompey reckoned that it was necessary for him to attempt to attempt something'
Latin: cōnfīdo mē celeriter ad urbem '''ventūrum''' (Cicero)[508]
'I am sure that I will come to the city soon'
The present infinitive is occasionally used in narrative as a tense in its own right. It usually describes a scene in which the same action was being done repeatedly. There are often two or more historic infinitives in succession.[509] When the subject is expressed, it is in the nominative case (distinguishing the historic infinitive from the accusative and infinitive of reported speech).
Latin: tum spectāculum horribile in campīs patentibus: '''sequī''', '''fugere''', '''occīdī''', '''capī''' (Sallust)[510]
'then there was a ghastly spectacle on the open plains: people kept chasing, fleeing, being killed, being captured'
Latin: '''clāmāre''' ille, cum raperētur, nihil sē miserum fēcisse (Cicero)[511]
'the poor man kept shouting, as he was being dragged away, that he had done nothing'
Latin: iste tum '''petere''' ab illīs, tum '''minārī''', tum spem, tum metum '''ostendere''' (Cicero)[512]
'he by turns kept begging them, then threatening, now offering hope, now fear'
The perfect tense Latin: potuī with the infinitive can often mean 'I was able to' or 'I managed to':
Latin: Scīpio P. Rupilium '''potuit''' cōnsulem '''efficere''', frātrem eius Lūcium '''nōn potuit''' (Cicero)[513]
'Scipio managed to make Publius Rupilius Consul, but he wasn't able to do the same for Rupilius's brother Lucius'
However, it can also mean 'I could have done (but did not)':[514]
Latin: quī fuī et quī '''esse potuī''' iam esse nōn possum (Cicero)[515]
'what I was and what I could have been, I can now no longer be'
Latin: Antōnī gladiōs '''potuit contemnere''', sī sīc omnia dīxisset (Juvenal)[516]
'(Cicero) could have despised Antony's swords (i.e. would have had no reason to fear them), if he had spoken everything in this way!'
Latin: quaeris quid '''potuerit''' amplius '''adsequī''' Plancius, sī Cn. Scīpionis fuisset fīlius (Cicero)[517]
'you ask what more Plancius could have achieved, if he had been the son of Gnaeus Scipio'
The pluperfect subjunctive after Latin: cum also means 'could have':
Latin: Aemilius, cum ... '''ēdūcere''' in aciem '''potuisset''', intrā vallum suōs tenuit (Livy)[518]
'although he could have led them out into battle, Aemilius held his troops inside the wall of the camp'
'Ought to have done' is often expressed with a past tense of Latin: dēbeō 'I have a duty to' or Latin: oportet 'it is fitting' together with a present infinitive:
Latin: in senātum '''venīre''' illō diē '''nōn dēbuistī''' (Cicero)[519]
'you ought not to have come to the Senate on that day'
Latin: ad mortem tē, Catilīna, '''dūcī''' iussū cōnsulis iam prīdem '''oportēbat''' (Cicero)[520]
'you ought to have been put to death long ago by order of the Consul, Catiline!'
Sometimes, Latin: oportēbat means 'it must be the case that...':
Latin: sī multus erat in calceīs pulvis, ex itinere eum '''venīre oportēbat''' (Cicero)[521]
'if there was a lot of dust on his shoes, he must have been coming from a journey'
Sometimes, in familiar style, Latin: oportuit can be used with the perfect infinitive passive:[522]
Latin: (hoc) iam prīdem '''factum esse''' oportuit (Cicero)[523]
'this ought to have been done long ago'
The indirect speech form is regularly Latin: oportuisse with the present infinitive:
Latin: domum negant '''oportuisse''' mē '''aedificāre''' (Cicero)[524]
'they say I ought not to have built the house'
See main article: Latin indirect speech. Indirect commands are made with two constructions: either Latin: ut (or Latin: nē) with the present or imperfect subjunctive, or the accusative and infinitive construction, using the present infinitive. The latter construction is used especially when the main verb is Latin: iubeō 'I order' or Latin: vetō 'I forbid', but also sometimes after Latin: imperō 'I command':[487]
Latin: signum '''darī''' iubet (Caesar)[525]
'he ordered the signal to be given'
Latin: quis tyrannus miserōs '''lūgēre''' vetuit? (Cicero)
'what tyrant has ever forbidden unhappy people to mourn?'
See main article: Latin indirect speech. The infinitive is very commonly used for the reported verb in indirect statements, whether dependent on a verb like Latin: dīcō 'I say', or other verbs such as Latin: putō 'I think', Latin: cognōscō 'I find out', Latin: meminī 'I remember' and so on.
Except where the main verb is passive, such as Latin: dīcitur 'he is said' or Latin: vidētur 'he seems' and the like, the subject of the quoted sentence is usually put into the accusative case and the verb into the infinitive. Thus a simple sentence such as Latin: Caesar vēnit 'Caesar has come' changes as follows:
Latin: cognōvērunt Caesarem '''vēnisse''' ([Caesar])[526]
'they learnt that Caesar had come'
This construction is known as the "accusative and infinitive" construction.
The rule of tense is that the present infinitive is used for any action or situation which is contemporary with the main verb, the perfect for actions or situations anterior to the main verb, and the future infinitive for actions or situations later than the main verb.[527] An exception to this rule is the verb Latin: meminī 'I remember', which when used of personal reminiscence (e.g. 'I remember being present') is usually followed by a present infinitive.[528]
The present infinitive is used to express an action or situation simultaneous with the verb of speaking:
Latin: Solōn '''furere''' sē simulāvit (Cicero)[529]
'Solon pretended that he was mad'
Latin: sēnsit in sē '''īrī''' Brutus (Livy)[530]
'Brutus noticed that an attack was being made on him'
The present infinitive used after Latin: meminī when describing a personal reminiscence, however, refers to the past:[531]
Latin: meminī mē '''intrāre''' scholam eius, cum recitātūrus esset in Milōnem (Seneca the Elder)[532]
'I remember going into his school when he was just about to recite a speech against Milo'
In indirect statements, a perfect infinitive represents an event or a situation which occurred prior to the time of the verb of speaking. The first two examples have a verb of speaking in the present tense:
Latin: lictōrem tuum '''occīsum esse''' dīcis (Cicero)[533]
'you say that your bodyguard was killed'
Latin: hōs librōs tum '''scrīpsisse''' dīcitur (Cicero)[534]
'he is said to have written these books at that time'
In the following the main verb is in a past tense, so that in English the pluperfect is used when translating the infinitive:
Latin: mihī nūntiāvit M. Marcellum pugiōne '''percussum esse''' et duo vulnera '''accēpisse''' (Servius to Cicero)[535]
he reported to me that Marcus Marcellus had been stabbed with a dagger and had received two wounds'
The infinitive Latin: fuisse can describe a situation in the past, earlier than the time of the verb of speaking:
Latin: patrem lanium '''fuisse''' ferunt (Livy)[536]
'they say that his father was a butcher'
The perfect infinitive may also at times be translated with a continuous tense in English, representing an imperfect tense in the original speech:
Latin: dīcitur eō tempore mātrem Pausaniae '''vīxisse''' (Nepos)[537]
'it is said that at that time the mother of Pausanias was still living'
Often the verb of speaking is omitted if it can be understood from the context:
Latin: rem atrōcem '''incidisse''' (Livy)[317]
'a terrible thing had happened' (she said)
Archaic perfect infinitives such as Latin: dīxe 'to have said', Latin: dēspexe 'to have looked down', Latin: intellexe 'to have understood' and others are found in Plautus: These in classical Latin would be Latin: dīxisse, dēspexisse and Latin: intellexisse:
Latin: ain tū tibi '''dīxe''' Syncerastum, Milphio, eās ésse ingenuās ambās? (Plautus)[538]
'are you saying, Milphio, that Syncerastus told you that both those girls were free-born?'
Latin: mē '''dēspexe''' ad tē per impluvium tuom fateōr (Plautus)[539]
'I confess I did look down at you through the hole in your roof'
Occasionally a perfect passive infinitive is found formed with Latin: fuisse instead of Latin: esse. The meaning of the two forms is different. The perfect infinitive with Latin: esse merely refers to an event which took place before the time of the verb of speaking (e.g. ('he reported that Marcellus had been killed'). Thus there are two times involved, the time of the verb of speaking and the time of the event referred to. But when the perfect infinitive has Latin: fuisse there are three times involved: the time of the verb of the speaking, the reference time, and a time earlier still when the event took place.
Just as a perfect tense can describe a current situation (e.g. 'he has died' = 'he is dead'), so a double perfect infinitive often describes a situation that existed at the time referred to, as in the following examples:
Latin: quod iūdicium cum agerētur, exercitum in forō '''collocātum''' ā Gn. Pompeiō '''fuisse''' ...ex ōrātiōne appāret (Asconius)[540]
'it appears from the speech that while the trial was in progress, an army had been stationed in the forum by Gnaeus Pompeius'
Latin: tūn mēd '''indūtum fuisse''' pallam praedicās? (Plautus)[541]
'are you saying that (at the time when you saw me) I was wearing (lit. was dressed in) a lady's mantle?'
Latin: Herculēs ... dēvēnit ad Promēthea, quem in Caucasō monte '''vīnctum fuisse''' suprā dīximus (Hyginus)[542]
'Hercules eventually came to Prometheus, who, as we said above, had (earlier) been chained up / was at that time chained up in the Caucasus mountain'
Latin: dēprehēnsus dēnique cum ferrō ad senātum is quem ad Cn. Pompeium interimendum '''conlocātum fuisse''' cōnstābat (Cicero)[543]
'finally a man who, it was established, had been stationed there to kill Gnaeus Pompeius was arrested with a weapon near the Senate'
Latin: satis est ... docēre magnam eī spem in Milōnis morte '''prōpositam ... fuisse''' (Cicero)[544]
'it is sufficient to show that (at the time he was killed) for Clodius great hope had been placed in Milo's death'
In other examples, the double perfect infinitive describes a situation which existed earlier on, but which later changed:
Latin: cognōvī tibi eum falsō '''suspectum fuisse''' (Cicero)[545]
'I found out that (until you got to know him better) he had previously been unfairly suspected by you'
Latin: Zanclē quoque '''iūncta fuisse''' dīcitur Ītaliae, dōnec cōnfīnia pontus abstulit (Ovid)[546]
'Zancle (= Messina in Sicily) too is said to have been formerly joined to Italy, until the sea took away the common boundary'
Latin: populum Tanaquil adloquitur: ... '''sōpītum fuisse''' rēgem subitō ictū; ... iam ad sē redīsse (Livy)[547]
'Tanaquil addressed the people: she said that the king had (earlier) been knocked unconscious by the sudden blow, but he had now recovered'
Latin: idque ... eius imperātōris nōmine '''positum ac dēdicātum fuisse''' (Cicero)[548]
'and (they are saying) that (the statue) had originally been placed there and dedicated in the name of that general (but later Gaius Verres removed it)'
It is also possible to find this infinitive in contexts not in indirect speech. In the following example the infinitive refers to an action which took place at an earlier period before the time of the imagined harvest, which is itself in the past:
Latin: '''satum fuisse''' potest ubi nōn fuit messis (Quintilian)[549]
'it's possible for a place to have been sown (earlier) where (later) there was no harvest'
The distinction between the two types of perfect infinitive is available only in passive verbs. When the verb is active, the simple perfect infinitive is used in a similar context:
Latin: potest '''coisse''' cum viro quae non peperit (Quintilian)
'it is possible for a woman who did not give birth to have (earlier) slept with a man'
Another example not in direct speech the following, in which Martial is describing a magnificent he-goat depicted on a cup, and suggests that Phrixus's sister Helle might have preferred to have been riding on this rather than the ram which she fell off:
Latin: ab hōc māllet '''vecta fuisse''' soror (Martial)[550]
'his sister might well have preferred to have been carried by this (before she died)'
There appear to be no examples of a deponent verb in this tense of the infinitive in classical Latin.
The active future infinitive is formed periphrastically, using the future participle, for example Latin: ductūrus esse 'to be going to lead'. The participle often occurs in the accusative case and can change for gender and number Latin: ductūrum esse, ductūram esse, etc). One verb, Latin: sum 'I am', has a non-compound future infinitive Latin: fore, equivalent to Latin: futūrum esse.
The future infinitive is used in reported speech for events or situations which are to take place later than the verb of speaking:
Latin: cōnfīdō tē '''factūrum esse''' omnia (Cicero)[551]
'I am sure that you will do everything'
Latin: prōmitte hoc '''fore''' (Plautus)[552]
'promise that this will be (so)'
In a past context the future infinitive is translated with 'would' instead of 'will':
Latin: crēdidī aegrē tibī id '''fore''' (Plautus)[553]
'I believed it would be annoying for you'
As with the perfect passive infinitive, Latin: esse is often omitted:
Latin: locum ubī esset facile '''inventūrōs''' (Nepos)[554]
'they would easily find the place where he was (he said)'
The irregular verbs Latin: possum 'I am able' and Latin: volō 'I want' have no future infinitive. In these verbs the present infinitive is used instead:[555]
Latin: totīus Galliae sēsē potīrī '''posse''' spērant (Caesar)[556]
'they hope that they will be able to gain control of the whole of Gaul'
A future passive infinitive can be made using the supine of the verb combined with Latin: īrī, the passive infinitive of the verb Latin: eō 'I go'. This is comparatively rare.[557] The ending Latin: -um does not change for gender or number:
Latin: rūmor venit '''datum īrī''' gladiātōrēs (Terence)[558]
'a rumour came that a gladiator show was going to be given'
Another way of expressing the future in indirect statement is to use the phrase Latin: fore ut 'it would be the case that'. This can be used with an active or passive verb, and almost always with either the present or the imperfect subjunctive:[559]
Latin: spērō '''fore ut contingat''' id nōbīs (Cicero)[560]
'I hope that we shall have that good fortune'
Latin: respondērunt Chaldaeī '''fore ut imperāret''' mātremque '''occīderet''' (Tacitus)[561]
'the astrologers replied that (Nero) would become Emperor, but that he would kill his mother'
Latin: omnēs id '''fore''' putābant '''ut''' miser virgīs '''caederētur''' (Cicero)[562]
'they all thought that the poor man was going to be beaten with rods'
Sometimes Latin: futūrum esse ut or Latin: futūrum ut is used instead of Latin: fore ut:
Latin: '''futūrum esse''', nisī prōvisum esset, '''ut''' Rōma '''caperētur''' (Cicero)[563]
'(the voice predicted) that unless precautions were taken, Rome would be captured'
Certain archaic future infinitives ending in -āssere can be found in Plautus, for example:
Latin: sīn aliter sient animātī neque dent quae petāt, sēse igitur summā vī virīsque eōrum oppidum '''oppugnāssere''' (Plautus)[564]
'if on the other hand they were otherwise minded and would not give what he wanted, he would attack their town with the greatest force and army'
Latin: crēdō tē facile '''impetrāssere''' (Plautus)[565]
'I believe you will have your request granted easily'
To express a future perfect tense in indirect statement is possible only if the verb is passive or deponent.[566] In the following examples, a perfect participle is combined with the future infinitive Latin: fore:
Latin: Carthāginiēsēs '''dēbellātum''' mox '''fore''' rēbantur (Livy)[567]
'the Carthaginians thought that the war was soon going to have been brought to an end'
Latin: metum sī quī sustulisset, omnem vītae dīligentiam '''sublātam fore''' (Cicero)[568]
'if someone were to remove fear, all carefulness of life would have been removed too'
Latin: hoc possum dīcere, mē satis '''adeptum fore''', sī nūllum in mē perīculum redundārit (Cicero)[569]
'I can say this, that I will have achieved enough, if no danger redounds on me'
Very rarely Latin: fore ut can be followed by a perfect or pluperfect subjunctive.[570] In the following example, the pluperfect subjunctive represents a future perfect indicative of direct speech:
Latin: spērābam, cum hās litterās accēpissēs, '''fore ut''' ea quae superiōribus litterīs ā tē petīssēmus '''impetrāta essent''' (Cicero to Plancus)[571]
'I hope (epistolary imperfect) that by the time you receive this letter, what I requested from you in my earlier letter will have been granted'
See also: Latin conditional clauses. The periphrastic perfect infinitive (or potential infinitive) is formed from the future participle with Latin: fuisse. It is used in indirect speech for representing the main verb of an unreal conditional, whether referring to a past time or present time. In the following examples the verb refers to past time, and in the original sentence would have been pluperfect subjunctive:[572]
Latin: hoc tamen nūntiā, melius mē '''moritūram fuisse''' sī nōn in fūnere meō nūpsissem (Livy)[573]
'but take this message to him, that I would have died better if I had not married on the day of my funeral!'
Latin: dīxit sī egō cōnsul nōn fuissem, rem pūblicam funditus '''peritūram fuisse''' (Cicero)[574]
'he said that if I had not been consul, the republic would have been completely finished'
If the introductory verb is passive, such as Latin: vidētur 'he seems', the participle is nominative:
Latin: nōn vidētur '''mentītūrus fuisse''', nisī dēspērāsset (Quintilian)[575]
'it is unlikely that he would have told a lie unless he had been desperate'
The same tense of the infinitive can also represent the transformation into indirect statement of an imperfect potential subjunctive, referring to a hypothetical present situation:[576]
Latin: an tū cēnsēs ūllam anum tam dēlīram '''futūram fuisse''' ut somniīs crēderet, nisī ista cāsū nōn nunquam forte temerē concurrerent? (Cicero)[577]
'do you think any old woman would ever be so crazy as to believe in dreams if they didn't come true by chance sometimes?'
Latin: quid putāmus '''passūrum fuisse''' sī vīveret? – nobīscum cēnāret! (Pliny)[578]
'what do we think would be happening to him if he were alive?' – 'he would be dining with us!'
Latin: fatentur sē virtūtis causā, nisi ea voluptātem faceret, nē manum quidem '''versūrōs fuisse''' (Cicero)[579]
'they confess that they would not lift a finger for the sake of virtue, unless virtue itself gave pleasure'
In such sentences the imperfect subjunctive in the subordinate clause (in this case Latin: faceret) is left unchanged, despite the fact that the main verb is primary.
Just as Latin: fore ut is used to make a future passive infinitive, so Latin: futūrum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive can be used to make a potential passive infinitive:[580]
Latin: nisi eō ipsō tempore quīdam nūntiī dē Caesaris victōriā essent allātī, exīstimābant plērīque '''futūrum fuisse utī āmitterētur''' (Caesar)[581]
'if at that very moment certain reports had not arrived bringing news of Caesar's victory, most people reckoned that (the town) would have been lost'
However this is very rare, and in fact only two instances have been noted (the other being Cicero, Tusc. 3.69).[582]
Gerundive infinitives can be formed with Latin: esse, fuisse and Latin: fore.
The present gerundive infinitive with Latin: esse is used in indirect speech to indicate something which needs to be done at the time of the verb of speaking:
Latin: medicō ipsī putō aliquid '''dandum esse''' (Cicero)[583]
'I think something should be given to the doctor himself'
The ending of the gerundive varies according to gender and number. In the following it is feminine singular:
Latin: dīcit in nōmine Valeri in cāsū vocandī prīmam syllabam '''acuendam esse''' (Gellius)[584]
'he says that in the name "Valerius" in the vocative case, the first syllable should be accented'
The order of the words can be reversed:
Latin: nōn opīnor '''esse dubitandum''' (Cicero)
'I do not think there is any need to doubt'
The perfect gerundive infinitive with Latin: fuisse indicates something that was necessary at a previous time:
Latin: iter Asiāticum tuum putō tibī '''suscipiendum fuisse''' (Cicero)[585]
'I imagine that it was unavoidable for you to undertake that journey to Asia'
However, it can also refer to what ought to have been done at some time in the past:[586]
Latin: quid tandem praetōrī '''faciendum fuisse'''? (Livy)[587]
'what, pray, ought a praetor to have done?'
In a conditional clause in reported speech the perfect gerundive infinitive can also refer to something that would have been necessary in some hypothetical situation:
Latin: nec cuīquam ante '''pereundum fuisse''' sī Sīlius rērum poterētur (Tacitus)[588]
'and (he said that) there wouldn't be anyone who would have to die sooner than himself if Silius were Emperor'
The future gerundive infinitive is made with Latin: fore. It is used in indirect statements to describe something which it is going to be necessary to do:
Latin: itaque eō ipsō locō mētārī suōs castra iusserat, laetus in illīs potissimum angustiīs '''dēcernendum fore''' (Curtius)[589]
'and so he had ordered his men to lay out their camp in that very place, delighted that it was going to be necessary to fight the decisive battle in that particular narrow plain' (see Battle of Issus)
It can also describe what must inevitably happen at a future time:
Latin: '''senēscendum fore''' tantum terrārum vel sine proeliō obeuntī (Curtius)[590]
'(he had written that) a person would inevitably grow old just visiting such a huge country, even without fighting a battle'
Infinitives formed with Latin: habēre and Latin: habuisse are also possible, again with stress on the maintenance of the result. These are used in indirect speech:
Latin: sē ita triennium illud praetūrae Siciliēnsis '''distribūtum habēre''', ut ... (Cicero)[591]
'(Verres is said to have claimed that) he had divided up that three-year period of his Sicilian praetorship in such a way that...'
Latin: tē ... fatēris ... aurum '''occultum habuisse''' (Quintilian)[592]
'you confess that you had hidden the gold / were keeping it hidden'
Latin: pollicērer tibī ... mē '''sēgregātum habuisse''', uxōrem ut dūxit, ā mē Pamphilum (Terence)[593]
'I would promise you that, as soon as he got married, I split up with Pamphilus and was keeping him away from me'
Latin: Cauniī praetereā dēbent, sed aiunt sē '''dēpositam''' pecūniam '''habuisse''' (Cicero)[594]
'the people of Caunus also owe him money, but they say that they had already deposited a sum of money'
The imperative mood has two tenses, present and future.
The present imperative mood is the normal tense used for giving direct orders which the speaker wishes to be carried out at once. The active form can be made plural by adding -te:
Latin: '''dā''' mī bāsia mīlle, deinde centum! (Catullus)[595]
'give me a thousand kisses, then a hundred!'
Latin: '''date''' dexterās fidemque! (Livy)[596]
'give me your right hands and your oath!'
Deponent verbs such as Latin: proficīscor 'I set out' or Latin: sequor 'I follow' have an imperative ending in -re or -minī (plural):
Latin: patent portae: '''proficīscere'''! (Cicero)[597]
'the gates are open: depart!'
Latin: '''sequiminī''' mē hūc intrō ambae (Terence)[598]
'follow me this way inside, both of you'
An imperative is usually made negative by using Latin: nōlī(te) (literally, 'be unwilling!') plus the infinitive:
Latin: '''nōlīte''' mīrārī (Seneca the Elder)[599]
'don't be surprised'
However, in poetry an imperative can sometimes be made negative with the particle nē:
Latin: '''nē''' mē '''terrēte''' timentem, obscēnae volucrēs! (Virgil)[600]
'do not terrify me, who am already scared, obscene birds!'
A negative order can also use the perfect subjunctive:[601]
Latin: dē mē nihil '''timuerīs''' (Cicero)[602]
'do not be afraid on my account'
In later Latin, Latin: nē plus the present subjunctive became more common, for example in the Vulgate Bible.[603] In the following example the first three verbs use the present subjunctive, and the fourth the perfect subjunctive:
Latin: nē '''adulterēs''', nē '''occīdās''', nē '''fūrēris''', nē falsum testimōnium '''dīxerīs''' (Mark, 10.19)
'do not commit adultery, do not kill, do not steal, do not speak false testimony'
Latin also has a Future imperative or 2nd imperative,[604] ending in -tō(te), used to request someone to do something at a future time, or if something else happens first. This imperative is very common in early writers such as Plautus and Cato, but it is also found in later writers such as Cicero and Martial:
Latin: crās '''petitō''', dabitur (Plautus)[605]
'ask tomorrow; it will be given to you'
Latin: ubi nōs lāverimus, sī volēs, '''lavātō''' (Terence)[606]
'when we have finished washing, get washed if you wish'
Latin: crūdam si edēs, in acētum '''intinguitō''' (Cato)[607]
'if you are (going to be) eating it (cabbage) raw, dip it in vinegar'
Latin: sī quid acciderit, ... '''scrībitō''' (Cicero)[608]
'if anything happens, write to me'
Latin: '''rīdētō''' multum quī tē, Sextille, cinaedum dīxerit et digitum '''porrigitō''' medium (Martial)[609]
'Sextillus, laugh a lot at anyone who calls you a 'faggot' and show them the middle finger'
Some verbs have only the second imperative, for example Latin: scītō 'know', Latin: mementō 'remember'.[604] In this case the imperative sometimes has a present rather than future meaning:
Latin: fīliolō me auctum '''scītō''', salvā Terentiā (Cicero)[610]
'know that I have been blessed with a little son, and that Terentia is safe'
Latin: in Britanniā ... '''cavētō''' et ... illud semper '''mementō''' (Cicero)[611]
'when you're in Britain, take care ... and always remember this...'
There is also a future passive imperative, but it is extremely rare. It can be either 2nd or 3rd person:[612]
Latin: pār parī '''iugātor''' coniūx (Ausonius)[613]
'A spouse should be joined equal to equal' (or: 'Be joined as a spouse equal to an equal')
Related to the colloquial future imperative is the formal imperative (usually used in the 3rd person) of legal language, as in this invented law from Cicero's Latin: de Lēgibus:
Latin: rēgiō imperiō duo '''suntō''', iīque ... ā cōnsulendō cōnsulēs '''appellāminō'''; nēminī '''pārentō'''; ollīs salūs populī suprēma lēx '''estō''' (Cicero)[614]
'there shall be two men with royal power; and from consulting they are to be called 'consuls'; they are to obey nobody; for them the welfare of the people shall be the supreme law'
According to J.G.F. Powell, Latin: appellāminō is not a genuine archaic form; in early Latin Latin: -minō is used only in deponent verbs and is 2nd or 3rd person singular.[615]
Compared to Greek, Latin is deficient in participles, having only three, as follows, as well as the gerundive. The Romans themselves[616] considered the gerundive also to be a participle, but most modern grammars treat it as a separate part of speech.[617]
The different participles of the verb Latin: dūcō are shown below:
| Present | Latin: dūcēns|italic=no, pl. Latin: dūcentēs|italic=no | leading | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | Latin: ductus|italic=no, pl. Latin: ductī|italic=no | led, having been led | |||
| Future | Latin: ductūrus|italic=no, pl. Latin: ductūrī|italic=no | going to lead | |||
| Gerundive | Latin: dūcendus|italic=no, pl. Latin: dūcendī|italic=no | needing to be led | |||
| Present | Latin: sequēns|italic=no, pl. Latin: sequentēs|italic=no | following | |||
| Perfect | Latin: secūtus|italic=no, pl. Latin: secūtī|italic=no | having followed | |||
| Future | Latin: secūtūrus|italic=no, pl. Latin: secūtūrī|italic=no | going to follow | |||
| Gerundive | Latin: sequendus|italic=no, pl. Latin: sequendī|italic=no | needing to be followed |
The participles are all verbal adjectives, and so the ending changes according to case, gender, and number.
As the table shows, there is no passive present or future participle, and no active past participle. In deponent verbs, however, the Perfect participle is active in meaning, e.g. Latin: profectus, 'having set out', Latin: cōnātus 'having tried'. In deponent verbs, the gerundive is usually used in impersonal form and with an active meaning: Latin: proficīscendum est 'it is necessary to set out', Latin: moriendum est 'it is necessary to die', Latin: cōnandum est 'it is necessary to try'; but some deponent verbs have a personal gerundive with a passive sense: Latin: hortandus 'needing to be encouraged', Latin: sequendus 'needing to be followed':
Latin: media ratiō '''sequenda''' est (Columella)[618]
'a middle course must be followed'
The present and future participles of deponent verbs are active in form, e.g. Latin: moriēns 'dying', Latin: moritūrus 'about to die'. Originally deponent verbs had no present participle and perfect participles such as Latin: ratus 'thinking' and Latin: veritus 'fearing' were used with a present meaning.[619]
The verb Latin: sum 'I am' has no Present or Perfect participle in classical Latin, but only the Future participle Latin: futūrus 'going to be'. The compound verbs Latin: praesum and Latin: absum, however, form the Present participles Latin: praesēns, absēns.
The verbs Latin: volō 'I want' and Latin: possum 'I am able' have no future participle. Latin: Potēns, the present participle of Latin: possum, has a limited use as an adjective meaning 'powerful'.
The 3rd and 4th conjugation gerundive in older texts such as Plautus ends with -undus: Latin: faciundum, Latin: ferundum, Latin: veniundum.[620] Such endings are sometimes found even in classical Latin. Later, -endus became usual, but in the verb Latin: eō 'I go', the gerundive is always Latin: eundum 'necessary to go'.
Like the infinitive, the tenses of the participles are not absolute but relative to the main verb of the sentence. For example, a future participle can refer to an action in the past, provided it is later than the time of the main verb; and similarly the perfect participle can refer to an action in the future, provided it is earlier than the time of the main verb.
The present participle usually describes a condition or an action which is happening at the time of the main verb:
Latin: aquā '''ferventī''' ... perfunditur (Cicero)[621]
'he was doused with boiling water'
Latin: strictō gladiō ad '''dormientem''' Lūcrētiam vēnit (Livy)[622]
'having drawn his sword, he came to Lucretia while she was sleeping'
Occasionally, a present participle can refer to an action which takes place immediately before the time of the main verb:
Latin: '''quaerentī'''que virō 'satin salvē?' 'minimē' inquit (Livy)[596]
'and to her husband, when he asked "are you all right?" she replied "not at all!" '
Present participles of deponent verbs are only very rarely found in early Latin (although Plautus is said to have written a play called Latin: Commorientēs 'Those dying together')[623] but they became common later.
The perfect participle refers to an action which took place before the time of the main verb, or to the state that something is in as a result of an earlier action:
Latin: '''occīsōs''' sepelīvit (Eutropius)[624]
'he buried the dead (those who had been killed)'
A deponent participle such as Latin: ratus 'thinking, reckoning' or Latin: veritus 'fearing' can often be translated as if it were present:
Latin: idōneum tempus '''ratus''' studiīs obsequendī suīs Athēnās sē contulit (Nepos)[625]
'thinking this a suitable time for pursuing his studies, he went to Athens'
The future participle is most commonly used in the periphrastic tenses or in indirect statements (see examples above). 'An examination of the usage of the various authors shows that the form in -ūrus did not reach the full status of a participle till the time of Livy. Up to the time of Caesar and Cicero its use was almost restricted to a combination with the verb Latin: esse, making a periphrastic future tense (Woodcock).[626] Woodcock speculates that the -ūrus ending might originally have been a verbal noun.
In later authors the future participle is sometimes used as in Greek to indicate purpose:
Latin: dēdūcit quadrirēmēs, '''lātūrus''' auxilium (Pliny)[627]
'he launched some warships, with a view to bringing help'