Latin is a heavily inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for number and case; pronouns and adjectives (including participles) are inflected for number, case, and gender; and verbs are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. The inflections are often changes in the ending of a word, but can be more complicated, especially with verbs.
Thus verbs can take any of over 100 different endings to express different meanings, for example Latin: regō "I rule", Latin: regor "I am ruled", Latin: regere "to rule", Latin: regī "to be ruled". Most verbal forms consist of a single word, but some tenses are formed from part of the verb Latin: sum "I am" added to a participle; for example, Latin: ductus sum "I was led" or Latin: ductūrus est "he is going to lead".
Classified things (represented by common nouns) belong to one of three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The gender of the classified thing is realized by the last syllables of the adjectives, numbers and pronouns that refer to it: e.g. male animals such as Latin: hic vir "this man" and Latin: hic gallus "this cock", female animals such as Latin: haec mulier "this woman" and Latin: haec gallīna "this chicken", and either sexually undifferentiated animals such as Latin: hoc ovum "this egg" or stuff in general such as Latin: hoc "this thing". Specific kinds of stuff and abstract things also have one of the three grammatical genders. There are also two numbers: singular (Latin: mulier "woman") and plural (Latin: mulierēs "women").
As well as having gender and number, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have different endings according to their function in the sentence, for example, Latin: rēx "the king" (subject), but Latin: rēgem "the king" (object). These different endings are called "cases". Most nouns have five cases: nominative (subject), accusative (object), genitive ("of"), dative ("to" or "for"), and ablative ("with" or "in"). Nouns for people (potential addressees) have the vocative (used for addressing someone). Nouns for places have a seventh case, the locative; this is mostly found with the names of towns and cities, e.g. Latin: Rōmae "in Rome".
There is no definite or indefinite article in Latin, so that Latin: rēx can mean "king", "a king", or "the king" according to context.
Latin word order tends to be subject–object–verb; however, other word orders are common. Different word orders are used to express different shades of emphasis. (See Latin word order.)
An adjective can come either before or after a noun, e.g. Latin: vir bonus or Latin: bonus vir "a good man", although some kinds of adjectives, such as adjectives of nationality (Latin: vir Rōmānus "a Roman man") usually follow the noun.
Latin is a pro-drop language; that is, pronouns in the subject are usually omitted except for emphasis, so for example Latin: amās by itself means "you love" without the need to add the pronoun Latin: tū "you". Latin also exhibits verb framing in which the path of motion is encoded into the verb rather than shown by a separate word or phrase. For example, the Latin verb Latin: exit (a compound of and) means "he/she/it goes out".
In this article a line over a vowel (e.g. ē) indicates that it is long.
Most Latin nouns have two numbers, singular and plural: Latin: rēx "king", Latin: rēgēs "kings". A few nouns, called Latin: plūrālia tantum ("plural only"), although plural in form, have a singular meaning, e.g. Latin: castra "a camp", Latin: litterae "a letter", Latin: nūptiae "a wedding".
Nouns are divided into three genders, known as masculine, feminine, and neuter. The difference is shown in the pronouns and adjectives that refer to them, for example:
To a certain extent, the genders follow the meanings of the words (for example, winds are masculine, tree-names feminine):
Neuter nouns differ from masculine and feminine in two ways: (1) the plural nominative and accusative forms end in -a, e.g. Latin: bella "wars", Latin: corpora "bodies"; (2) the subject (nominative) and object (accusative) cases are identical.
Nouns in Latin have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for "king" is Latin: rēx when it is the subject of a verb, but Latin: rēgem when it is the object:
Further cases mean "of" (genitive case), "to/for" (dative case), and "with" (ablative case).
Nouns for people have a separate form used for addressing a person (vocative case). In most nouns for women and girls, the vocative is the same as the nominative.
Some nouns, such as the names of cities and small islands, and the word Latin: domus "home", have a seventh case called the locative, for example Latin: Rōmae "in Rome" or Latin: domī "at home"; however, most nouns do not have this case.
The genitive, dative and ablative cases are called the "oblique" cases.
The order in which the cases are given in grammar books differs in different countries. In Britain and countries influenced by Britain, the order nominative, vocative, accusative is used as in the table below. In the United States, in grammars such as Gildersleeve and Lodge's Latin Grammar (1895), the traditional order is used, with the genitive case in the second place and ablative last. In the popularly used Wheelock's Latin (1956, 7th edition 2011) and Allen and Greenough's New Latin Grammar (1903), however, the vocative is placed at the end.
The following table shows the endings of a typical noun of the 3rd declension. If Gildersleeve and Lodge's order is preferred, click on the symbol "GL" in the seventh column in the table below; for Wheelock's order click on "Wh":
| class=unsortable | Name of case | class=unsortable | Use | class=unsortable | sing. | class=unsortable | meaning | class=unsortable | plur. | class=unsortable | meaning | Br | GL | Wh |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Subject | Latin: rēx|italic=no | a king, the king | Latin: rēgēs|italic=no | kings, the kings | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Vocative | Addressing | Latin: rēx|italic=no | o king! | Latin: rēgēs|italic=no | o kings! | 2 | 5 | 6 | ||||||
| Accusative | Object, goal | Latin: rēgem|italic=no | a king, the king (object) | Latin: rēgēs|italic=no | kings, the kings (object) | 3 | 4 | 4 | ||||||
| Genitive | of | Latin: rēgis|italic=no | of the king, of a king | Latin: rēgum|italic=no | of kings, of the kings | 4 | 2 | 2 | ||||||
| Dative | to, for | Latin: rēgī|italic=no | to the king | Latin: rēgibus|italic=no | to kings, to the kings | 5 | 3 | 3 | ||||||
| Ablative | with, by, from, in | Latin: rēge|italic=no | with the king | Latin: rēgibus|italic=no | with the kings | 6 | 6 | 5 |
Sometimes the same endings, e.g. Latin: -ēs and Latin: -ibus, are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Latin is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory Latin: rēgēs dūcunt could mean either "the kings lead" or "they lead the kings". In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare.
See main article: Latin declension.
Latin nouns are divided into different groups according to the patterns of their case endings. These different groups are known as declensions. Nouns with -a in the nominative singular, like Latin: puella "girl" are known as 1st declension nouns, and so on.
The following table shows the declension of Latin: puella "girl" (1st declension), Latin: dominus "lord, master" (2nd declension masculine), and Latin: bellum "war" (2nd declension neuter):
| Case | feminine | masculine | neuter | Br | GL | Wh | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | 1 pl. | 2 sg. | 2 pl. | 2n sg. | 2n pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Latin: puella|italic=no | Latin: puellae|italic=no | Latin: dominus|italic=no | Latin: dominī|italic=no | Latin: bellum|italic=no | Latin: bella|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Latin: puella|italic=no | Latin: puellae|italic=no | Latin: domine|italic=no | Latin: dominī|italic=no | Latin: bellum|italic=no | Latin: bella|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Latin: puellam|italic=no | Latin: puellās|italic=no | Latin: dominum|italic=no | Latin: dominōs|italic=no | Latin: bellum|italic=no | Latin: bella|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Latin: puellae|italic=no | Latin: puellārum|italic=no | Latin: dominī|italic=no | Latin: dominōrum|italic=no | Latin: bellī|italic=no | Latin: bellōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Latin: puellae|italic=no | Latin: puellīs|italic=no | Latin: dominō|italic=no | Latin: dominīs|italic=no | Latin: bellō|italic=no | Latin: bellīs|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Latin: puellā|italic=no | Latin: puellīs|italic=no | Latin: dominō|italic=no | Latin: dominīs|italic=no | Latin: bellō|italic=no | Latin: bellīs|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
1st declension nouns are usually feminine, except for a few referring to men, such as Latin: agricola "farmer" or Latin: poēta "poet". The nouns Latin: fīlia "daughter" and Latin: dea "goddess" have dative and ablative plural Latin: fīliābus, deābus. The locative case ends in -ae, pl. -īs, e.g. Latin: Rōmae "in Rome", Latin: Athēnīs "in Athens".
2nd declension nouns in -us are usually masculine, but those referring to trees (e.g. Latin: pīnus "pine tree") and some place names (e.g. Latin: Aegyptus "Egypt") are feminine. A few 2nd declension nouns, such as Latin: vir "man" and Latin: puer "boy", lack endings in the nominative and vocative singular. In the 2nd declension, the genitive plural in some words is optionally -um, especially in poetry: Latin: deum or Latin: deōrum "of the gods", Latin: virum or Latin: virōrum "of men".
Neuter nouns such as Latin: bellum "war" have -a in the nominative plural. In neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative are always the same as the nominative; the genitive, dative, and ablative are the same as the masculine. Most 2nd declension neuter nouns end in -um but Latin: vīrus "poison" and Latin: vulgus "crowd" end in -us.
Third declension nouns have various patterns of declension. Some decline like the following: Latin: mīles "soldier", Latin: urbs "city", Latin: corpus "body":
| Case | masculine | feminine | neuter | Br | GL | Wh | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 sg. | 3 pl. | 3 sg. | 3 pl. | 3n sg. | 3n pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Latin: mīles|italic=no | Latin: mīlitēs|italic=no | Latin: urbs|italic=no | Latin: urbēs|italic=no | Latin: corpus|italic=no | Latin: corpora|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Latin: mīles|italic=no | Latin: mīlitēs|italic=no | Latin: urbs|italic=no | Latin: urbēs|italic=no | Latin: corpus|italic=no | Latin: corpora|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Latin: mīlitem|italic=no | Latin: mīlitēs|italic=no | Latin: urbem|italic=no | Latin: urbēs/-īs|italic=no | Latin: corpus|italic=no | Latin: corpora|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Latin: mīlitis|italic=no | Latin: mīlitum|italic=no | Latin: urbis|italic=no | Latin: urbium|italic=no | Latin: corporis|italic=no | Latin: corporum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Latin: mīlitī|italic=no | Latin: mīlitibus|italic=no | Latin: urbī|italic=no | Latin: urbibus|italic=no | Latin: corporī|italic=no | Latin: corporibus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Latin: mīlite|italic=no | Latin: mīlitibus|italic=no | Latin: urbe|italic=no | Latin: urbibus|italic=no | Latin: corpore|italic=no | Latin: corporibus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
There are some variations, however. A few, such as Latin: vīs, vim, vī "force", have accusative singular -im and ablative singular -ī; some, like Latin: ignis "fire", optionally have -ī instead of -e in the ablative singular. The genitive plural in some nouns is -um, in others -ium. (For details, see Latin declension.) 3rd declension nouns can be of any gender.
It is not usually possible to guess the genitive of a noun from the nominative: Latin: dux "leader" has genitive Latin: ducis but Latin: rēx "king" has Latin: rēgis; Latin: pater "father" has genitive Latin: patris but Latin: iter "journey" has Latin: itineris. For this reason the genitive is always given in dictionaries, and can be used to discover the remaining cases.
4th and 5th declension nouns are less common. They decline like the following (Latin: manus "hand", Latin: genū "knee", Latin: diēs "day"):
| Case | feminine | Br | GL | Wh | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 sg. | 4 pl. | 4n sg. | 4n pl. | 5 sg. | 5 pl. | |||||||
| Nominative | Latin: manus|italic=no | Latin: manūs|italic=no | Latin: genū|italic=no | Latin: genua|italic=no | Latin: diēs|italic=no | Latin: diēs|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Vocative | Latin: manus|italic=no | Latin: manūs|italic=no | Latin: genū|italic=no | Latin: genua|italic=no | Latin: diēs|italic=no | Latin: diēs|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||
| Accusative | Latin: manum|italic=no | Latin: manūs|italic=no | Latin: genū|italic=no | Latin: genua|italic=no | Latin: diēm|italic=no | Latin: diēs|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Genitive | Latin: manūs|italic=no | Latin: manuum|italic=no | Latin: genūs|italic=no | Latin: genuum|italic=no | Latin: diēī|italic=no | Latin: diērum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||
| Dative | Latin: manuī|italic=no | Latin: manibus|italic=no | Latin: genuī, genū|italic=no | Latin: genibus|italic=no | Latin: diēī|italic=no | Latin: diēbus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||
| Ablative | Latin: manū|italic=no | Latin: manibus|italic=no | Latin: genū|italic=no | Latin: genibus|italic=no | Latin: diē|italic=no | Latin: diēbus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||
4th declension nouns are usually masculine, but a few, such as Latin: manus "hand" and Latin: anus "old lady", are feminine. There are only four 4th declension neuter nouns.
5th declension nouns (except for Latin: diēs (m) "day") are usually feminine. Latin: rēs "thing" is similar to Latin: diēs except for a short e in the genitive and dative singular Latin: reī.
In addition to the above there are some irregularly declined nouns, mostly borrowed from Greek, such as the name Latin: Aenēās "Aeneas" (1st declension masculine).
The vocative is nearly always the same as the nominative, except in 1st and 2nd declension masculine singular words, such as Latin: Aenēā! "Aeneas!" and Latin: domine! "master!/lord!". Some words, such as Latin: deus "god", have no separate vocative, however.
The nominative case is used for the subject of an active or a passive verb:
Latin: '''rēx''' respondit = the king replied
Latin: '''rēx''' occīsus est = the king was killed
It is also used for the complement of a copula verb such as Latin: est "he is" or Latin: factus est "he became":
Latin: '''rēx''' erat Aenēās nōbīs = our king was Aeneas / Aeneas was our king
Latin: '''rēx''' factus est = he was made king / he became king
The vocative case is used when addressing someone:
Latin: jubēsne mē, '''Rōmule Rēx''', foedus ferīre? = do you order me, King Romulus, to strike a treaty?
The accusative case is used for the object of a sentence:
Latin: '''rēgem''' interfēcērunt = they killed the king
It is also used as the subject of an infinitival clause dependent on a verb of speaking or the like:
Latin: '''rēgem''' interfectum esse crēdēbant = they believed that the king had been killed
It can be the complement of another word which is itself accusative:
Latin: '''Tullum''' populus '''rēgem''' creāvit = the people made Tullus their king
It can also be used with a place name to refer to the destination:
Latin: '''Rōmam''' profectus est = he set out for Rome
The accusative is also used after various prepositions (especially those that imply motion towards):
Latin: senātus ad '''rēgem''' lēgātōs mīsit = the Senate sent ambassadors to the king
Latin: cōnsul in '''urbem''' rediit = the consul returned to the city
Another use of the accusative is to give a length of time or distance:
Latin: rēgnāvit '''annōs''' quīnque = he reigned for five years
Latin: quīnque '''pedēs''' longus = five foot tall
A genitive noun can represent a kin:
Latin: '''rēgis''' fīlia = the king's daughter, daughter of the king
A genitive noun can stand for the object of mental processes such as Latin: misereor "I pity" and Latin: oblīvīscor "I forget":
Latin: numquam oblīvīscar '''noctis illīus''' = I will never forget that night[1]
A genitive noun attached to a verbal noun can stand for the object of the implied verb (called an "objective genitive"):
Latin: maximī '''virī''' dēsiderium = my longing for the great man[2]
A genitive noun can stand for the subject of the implied verb (called a "subjective" genitive):
Latin: '''Caesaris''' adventus = Caesar's arrival
A frequent type of genitive is the partitive genitive, expressing the quantity of something:
Latin: satis '''temporis''' = enough time
The dative case means "to" or "for". It is frequently used with verbs of saying or giving:
Latin: '''rēgī''' nūntiātum est = it was announced to the king
Latin: pecūniam '''rēgī''' crēdidit = he entrusted the money to the king
It can also be used with certain adjectives:
Latin: cārissimus erat '''rēgī''' = he was very dear to the king[3]
It is also used with certain verbs such as Latin: pāreō "I obey" or Latin: persuādeō "I persuade":
Latin: pāruit '''rēgī''' = he was obedient to (i.e. obeyed) the king
There are also various idiomatic uses, such as the dative of possession:
Latin: quid est '''tibī''' nōmen? = what's your name?[4]
The ablative case can mean "with", especially when the noun it refers to is a thing rather than a person:
Latin: '''gladiō''' sē transfīgit = he stabbed himself with a sword
Often a phrase consisting of a noun plus participle in the ablative can express time or circumstance. This is known as an "ablative absolute":
Latin: '''rēgibus''' exāctīs = with the kings driven out, i.e. after the kings were driven out
It is also frequently used with prepositions, especially those meaning "from", "with", "in", or "by":
Latin: ūnus ē '''rēgibus''' = one from (i.e. one of) the kings
Latin: cum '''rēgibus''' = with the kings
Latin: ā '''rēgibus''' = by the kings, from the kings
Latin: prō '''rēge''' = for/on behalf of the king
Another use is in expressions of time and place (except those that give the length of time or distance):
Latin: '''eō tempore''' = at that time
Latin: '''hōc locō''' = at this place
Latin: '''paucīs diēbus''' = in a few days
The ablative can also mean "from", especially with place names:
Latin: '''Rōmā''' profectus est = he set out from Rome
Latin: '''locō''' ille mōtus est = he was dislodged from his position
The locative is a rare case used only with names of cities, small islands, and one or two other words such as domus "home". It means "at" or "in":
Latin: cōnsul alter '''Rōmae''' mānsit = one of the two consuls remained in Rome[5]
Latin: multōs annōs '''nostrae domī''' vīxit = he lived at our house for many years[6]
Adjectives, like nouns, have different endings for the different cases, singular and plural. They also differ as to gender, having different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter. (But masculine and neuter are identical in the genitive, dative, and ablative cases.)
Many adjectives belong to the 1st and 2nd declensions, declining in the same way as the nouns Latin: puella, dominus, bellum. An example is the adjective Latin: bonus "good" shown below:
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m. sg. | class=unsortable | f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m. pl | class=unsortable | f. pl. | class=unsortable | n. pl. | class=unsortable | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: bonus|italic=no | Latin: bona|italic=no | Latin: bonum|italic=no | Latin: bonī|italic=no | Latin: bonae|italic=no | Latin: bona|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||
| Vocative | Latin: bone|italic=no | Latin: bona|italic=no | Latin: bonum|italic=no | Latin: bonī|italic=no | Latin: bonae|italic=no | Latin: bona|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: bonum|italic=no | Latin: bonam|italic=no | Latin: bonum|italic=no | Latin: bonōs|italic=no | Latin: bonās|italic=no | Latin: bona|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: bonī|italic=no | Latin: bonae|italic=no | Latin: bonī|italic=no | Latin: bonōrum|italic=no | Latin: bonārum|italic=no | Latin: bonōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||||||||||
| Dative | Latin: bonō|italic=no | Latin: bonae|italic=no | Latin: bonō|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: bonō|italic=no | Latin: bonā|italic=no | Latin: bonō|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | Latin: bonīs|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||||||||||
Other adjectives belong to the 3rd declension, in which case the masculine and feminine are usually identical. Most 3rd declension adjectives are i-stems, and have ablative singular -ī and genitive plural -ium. An example is Latin: ingēns "huge" shown below:
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m/f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m/f. pl | class=unsortable | n. pl. | class=unsortable | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: ingēns|italic=no | Latin: ingēns|italic=no | Latin: ingentēs|italic=no | Latin: ingentia|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Vocative | Latin: ingēns|italic=no | Latin: ingēns|italic=no | Latin: ingentēs|italic=no | Latin: ingentia|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: ingentem|italic=no | Latin: ingēns|italic=no | Latin: ingentēs/-īs|italic=no | Latin: ingentia|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: ingentis|italic=no | Latin: ingentis|italic=no | Latin: ingentium|italic=no | Latin: ingentium|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: ingentī|italic=no | Latin: ingentī|italic=no | Latin: ingentibus|italic=no | Latin: ingentibus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: ingentī|italic=no | Latin: ingentī|italic=no | Latin: ingentibus|italic=no | Latin: ingentibus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||||||||
In a very few 3rd declension adjectives such as Latin: ācer, ācris, ācre "sharp, keen", the feminine is different from the masculine, but only in the nominative and vocative singular.
A few adjectives (especially comparative adjectives) decline as consonant stems, and have ablative singular -e and genitive plural -um. An example is Latin: melior "better":
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m/f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m/f. pl | class=unsortable | n. pl. | class=unsortable | Br | GL | Wh | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: melior|italic=no | Latin: melius|italic=no | Latin: meliōres|italic=no | Latin: meliōra|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Vocative | Latin: melior|italic=no | Latin: melius|italic=no | Latin: meliōrēs|italic=no | Latin: meliōra|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: meliōrem|italic=no | Latin: melius|italic=no | Latin: meliōrēs|italic=no | Latin: meliōra|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: meliōris|italic=no | Latin: meliōris|italic=no | Latin: meliōrum|italic=no | Latin: meliōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: meliōrī|italic=no | Latin: meliōrī|italic=no | Latin: meliōribus|italic=no | Latin: meliōribus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: meliōre|italic=no | Latin: meliōre|italic=no | Latin: meliōribus|italic=no | Latin: meliōribus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||||||||
Participles such as Latin: dūcēns "leading" usually have -e in the ablative singular, but -ium in the genitive plural.
There are no adjectives in the 4th or 5th declensions.
The adjectives Latin: sōlus "only" and Latin: tōtus "the whole of" decline like pronouns, with genitive singular -īus and dative singular -ī:
Latin: '''tōtīus''' Graeciae = of the whole of Greece (genitive case)
Latin: tibī '''sōlī''' = to you alone (dative case)
Any adjective that describes or refers to a noun must be in the same case as the noun, as well as the same number and gender. Thus in the phrase below, where rēx is in the vocative singular case, bonus must be in the vocative singular also:
Latin: ō '''bone''' rēx = o good king
Adjectives have positive, comparative and superlative forms. Superlative adjectives are declined according to the first and second declension, but comparative adjectives are third declension.
When used in sentences, a comparative adjective can be used in several ways:
Examples:
The comparative adjective can be used absolutely (i.e. without any overt comparison) or with the comparison made explicit:
Superlative adjectives are most frequently used absolutely, but they can also be used with the genitive Latin: omnium "of all":
| POSITIVE | COMPARATIVE | SUPERLATIVE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Latin: longus, -a, -um|italic=no long, tall | Latin: longior, -ius|italic=no longer, taller | Latin: longissimus, -a, -um|italic=no very long, longest | |
| Latin: brevis, -e|italic=no short | Latin: brevior, -ius|italic=no shorter | Latin: brevissimus, -a, -um|italic=no very short, shortest | |
| Latin: pulcher, -chra, -chrum|italic=no beautiful | Latin: pulchrior, -ius|italic=no more beautiful | Latin: pulcherrimus, -a, -um|italic=no very beautiful, most beautiful | |
| Latin: bonus, -a, -um|italic=no good | Latin: melior, -ius|italic=no better | Latin: optimus, -a, -um|italic=no very good, best | |
| Latin: facilis, -is, -e|italic=no easy | Latin: facilior, -ius|italic=no easier | Latin: facillimus, -a, -um|italic=no very easy, easiest | |
| Latin: magnus, -a, -um|italic=no great | Latin: maior, -ius|italic=no greater | Latin: maximus, -a, -um|italic=no very great, greatest | |
| Latin: malus, -a, -um|italic=no bad | Latin: peior, -ius|italic=no worse | Latin: pessimus, -a, -um|italic=no very bad, worst | |
| Latin: multus, -a, -um|italic=no much | Latin: plūs|italic=no (+ genitive) more | Latin: plūrimus, -a, -um|italic=no very much, most | |
| Latin: multī, -ae, -a|italic=no many | Latin: plūres, plūra|italic=no more | Latin: plūrimī, -ae, -a|italic=no very many, most | |
| Latin: parvus, -a, -um|italic=no small | Latin: minor|italic=no smaller | Latin: minimus, -a, -um|italic=no very small, smallest | |
| Latin: superus, -a, -um|italic=no situated above | Latin: superior, -ius|italic=no higher, previous | Latin: suprēmus, -a, -um / summus, -a, -um|italic=no highest, last | |
| (Latin: prae|italic=no) before | Latin: prior, prius|italic=no earlier | Latin: prīmus, -a, -um|italic=no first |
Detailed information and declension tables can be found at Latin declension.
Pronouns are of two kinds, personal pronouns and 3rd person pronouns. Personal pronouns decline as follows.
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | I | class=unsortable | you sg. | class=unsortable | himself/ herself | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | we | class=unsortable | you pl. | class=unsortable | themselves | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: ego|italic=no | Latin: tū|italic=no | – | Latin: nōs|italic=no | Latin: vōs|italic=no | – | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: mē|italic=no | Latin: tē|italic=no | Latin: sē / sēsē|italic=no | Latin: nōs|italic=no | Latin: vōs|italic=no | Latin: sē / sēsē|italic=no | 3 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: meī|italic=no | Latin: tuī|italic=no | Latin: suī|italic=no | Latin: nostrum/-trī|italic=no | Latin: vestrum/-trī|italic=no | Latin: suī|italic=no | 4 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: mihī|italic=no | Latin: tibī|italic=no | Latin: sibī|italic=no | Latin: nōbīs|italic=no | Latin: vōbīs|italic=no | Latin: sibī|italic=no | 5 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: mē|italic=no | Latin: tē|italic=no | Latin: sē / sēsē|italic=no | Latin: nōbīs|italic=no | Latin: vōbīs|italic=no | Latin: sē / sēsē|italic=no | 6 | 6 | |||||||||
Latin: mē, tē, nōs, vōs can also be used reflexively ("I see myself" etc.).
Latin: Nōs is frequently used in classical Latin for "I", but Latin: vōs is never used in a singular sense.
The genitive Latin: nostrum is used partitively (Latin: ūnusquisque nostrum "each one of us"), Latin: nostrī objectively (Latin: memor nostrī "remembering us, mindful of us").
3rd person pronouns are those such as Latin: hic "this" and Latin: ipse "(he) himself". The 3rd person pronouns can also be used adjectivally (except that Latin: quid "what?" when adjectival becomes Latin: quod). The declension of these pronouns tends to be irregular. They generally have -īus in the genitive singular, and -ī in the dative singular. In a few pronouns (Latin: illud "that", Latin: istud "that (of yours)", Latin: id "it, that", Latin: quod "which", Latin: quid "anything; what?", Latin: aliud "another", Latin: aliquid "something") the neuter singular ends in -d.
The declension of Latin: ille "that" is as follows:
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m. sg. | class=unsortable | f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m. pl | class=unsortable | f. pl. | class=unsortable | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: ille|italic=no | Latin: illa|italic=no | Latin: illud|italic=no | Latin: illī|italic=no | Latin: illae|italic=no | Latin: illa|italic=no | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: illum|italic=no | Latin: illam|italic=no | Latin: illud|italic=no | Latin: illōs|italic=no | Latin: illās|italic=no | Latin: illa|italic=no | 3 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: illīus (illius)|italic=no | Latin: illīus|italic=no | Latin: illīus|italic=no | Latin: illōrum|italic=no | Latin: illārum|italic=no | Latin: illōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: illī|italic=no | Latin: illī|italic=no | Latin: illī|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | 5 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: illō|italic=no | Latin: illā|italic=no | Latin: illō|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | Latin: illīs|italic=no | 6 | 6 | |||||||||
Latin: Ipse "he himself" is very similar, except that the neuter singular Latin: ipsum ends in -m instead of -d.
Other very common 3rd person pronouns are Latin: hic, haec, hoc "this" and Latin: is, ea, id "he, she, it; that". Like other 3rd person pronouns, these can be used either independently (Latin: is "he") or adjectivally (Latin: is homō "that man"):
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m. sg. | class=unsortable | f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m. pl | class=unsortable | f. pl. | class=unsortable | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: hic|italic=no | Latin: haec|italic=no | Latin: hoc|italic=no | Latin: hī|italic=no | Latin: hae|italic=no | Latin: haec|italic=no | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: hunc|italic=no | Latin: hanc|italic=no | Latin: hoc|italic=no | Latin: hōs|italic=no | Latin: hās|italic=no | Latin: haec|italic=no | 3 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: huius|italic=no | Latin: huius|italic=no | Latin: huius|italic=no | Latin: hōrum|italic=no | Latin: hārum|italic=no | Latin: hōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: huic|italic=no | Latin: huic|italic=no | Latin: huic|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | 5 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: hōc|italic=no | Latin: hāc|italic=no | Latin: hōc|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | Latin: hīs|italic=no | 6 | 6 | |||||||||
Before a vowel, Latin: hic and Latin: hoc are pronounced as if spelled Latin: hicc and Latin: hocc. Latin: Huius is pronounced as if spelled Latin: huiius with a long first syllable.
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m. sg. | class=unsortable | f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m. pl | class=unsortable | f. pl. | class=unsortable | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: is|italic=no | Latin: ea|italic=no | Latin: id|italic=no | Latin: iī|italic=no | Latin: eae|italic=no | Latin: ea|italic=no | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: eum|italic=no | Latin: eam|italic=no | Latin: id|italic=no | Latin: eōs|italic=no | Latin: eās|italic=no | Latin: ea|italic=no | 3 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: eius|italic=no | Latin: eius|italic=no | Latin: eius|italic=no | Latin: eōrum|italic=no | Latin: eārum|italic=no | Latin: eōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: eī|italic=no | Latin: eī|italic=no | Latin: eī|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | 5 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: eō|italic=no | Latin: eā|italic=no | Latin: eō|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | Latin: eīs/iīs|italic=no | 6 | 6 | |||||||||
Also very common is the relative pronoun Latin: quī, quae, quod "who, which". The interrogative Latin: quis? quid? "who? what?" and indefinite Latin: quis, qua, quid "anyone, anything" are similar apart from the nominative singular:
| class=unsortable | Case | class=unsortable | m. sg. | class=unsortable | f. sg. | class=unsortable | n. sg. | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | m. pl | class=unsortable | f. pl. | class=unsortable | n. pl. | Br | Am | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: quī|italic=no | Latin: quae|italic=no | Latin: quod|italic=no | Latin: quī|italic=no | Latin: quae|italic=no | Latin: quae|italic=no | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: quem|italic=no | Latin: quam|italic=no | Latin: quod|italic=no | Latin: quōs|italic=no | Latin: quās|italic=no | Latin: quae|italic=no | 3 | 4 | |||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: cuius|italic=no | Latin: cuius|italic=no | Latin: cuius|italic=no | Latin: quōrum|italic=no | Latin: quārum|italic=no | Latin: quōrum|italic=no | 4 | 2 | |||||||||
| Dative | Latin: cui|italic=no | Latin: cui|italic=no | Latin: cui|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | |||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: quō|italic=no | Latin: quā|italic=no | Latin: quō|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | Latin: quibus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | |||||||||
Like adjectives, pronouns must agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they refer to, as in the following, where hic is masculine agreeing with amor, but haec is feminine, agreeing with patria:
Latin: '''hic''' amor, '''haec''' patria est = this is my love, this my country[7]
There is no indefinite article or definite article (the, a, an). Sometimes the weak determiner Latin: is, ea, id (English "that, this") can serve for the definite article:
Latin: Persuāsīt populō ut '''eā pecūniā''' classis aedificārētur[8]
"He persuaded the people that a fleet should be built with the money (with that money)"
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs by indicating time, place or manner. Latin adverbs are indeclinable and invariable. Like adjectives, adverbs have positive, comparative and superlative forms.
The positive form of an adverb can often be formed from an adjective by appending the suffix -ē (2nd declension adjectives) or -(t)er (3rd declension adjectives). Thus the adjective Latin: clārus, -a, -um, which means "bright", can be contrasted to the adverb Latin: clārē, which means "brightly". The adverbial ending Latin: -(i)ter is used to form adverbs from 3rd declension adjectives, for example Latin: celer "quick", Latin: celeriter "quickly". Other endings such as -ō, -e, -tim are also found.
The comparative form of an adverb is the same as the neuter nominative singular form of a comparative adjective and usually ends in -ius. Instead of the adjective Latin: clārior, which means "brighter", the adverb is Latin: clārius, which means "more brightly".
The superlative adverb has the same base as the superlative adjective and always ends in a long -ē. Instead of the adjective Latin: clārissimus, which mean "very bright" or "brightest", the adverb is Latin: clārissimē, which means "very brightly" or "most brightly".
| POSITIVE | COMPARATIVE | SUPERLATIVE | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Latin: dignē|italic=no worthily | Latin: dignius|italic=no more worthily | Latin: dignissimē|italic=no very worthily, most worthily | |
| Latin: fortiter|italic=no bravely | Latin: fortius|italic=no more bravely | Latin: fortissimē|italic=no very bravely, most bravely | |
| Latin: facile|italic=no easily | Latin: facilius|italic=no more easily | Latin: facillimē|italic=no very easily, most easily | |
| Latin: bene|italic=no well | Latin: melius|italic=no better | Latin: optimē|italic=no very well, best | |
| Latin: male|italic=no badly | Latin: peius|italic=no worse | Latin: pessimē|italic=no very badly, worst | |
| Latin: magnopere|italic=no greatly | Latin: magis|italic=no more | Latin: maximē|italic=no very greatly, most, especially | |
| Latin: paulum|italic=no a little | Latin: minus|italic=no less | Latin: minimē|italic=no very little, least | |
| Latin: multum|italic=no much | Latin: plūs|italic=no more | Latin: plūrimum|italic=no very much, most | |
| Latin: diū|italic=no for a long time | Latin: diūtius|italic=no for a longer time, any longer | Latin: diūtissimē|italic=no for a very long time | |
| Latin: saepe|italic=no often | Latin: saepius|italic=no more often | Latin: saepissimē|italic=no very often, most often |
A prepositional phrase in Latin is made up of a preposition followed by a noun phrase in the accusative or ablative case. The preposition determines the case that is used, with some prepositions allowing different cases depending on the meaning. For example, Latin in takes the accusative case when it indicates motion (English "into") and the ablative case when it indicates position (English "on" or "inside"):
Latin: in urbem = "into the city" (accusative)
Latin: in urbe = "in the city" (ablative)
Most prepositions take one case only. For example, all those that mean "from", "by", or "with" take the ablative:
Latin: ex urbe = "out of the city"
Latin: ab urbe = "(away) from the city"
Latin: cum Caesare = "with Caesar"
Other prepositions take only the accusative:
Latin: extrā urbem = "outside the city"
Latin: ad urbem = "to/near the city"
Latin: per urbem = "through(out) the city"
Latin: circum urbem = "around the city"
In addition, there are a few postpositions. Latin: tenus "as far as" usually follows an ablative, sometimes a genitive plural case:
Latin: Taurō tenus "as far as Taurus"
Latin: Cūmārum tenus "as far as Cumae"
Latin: versus "towards" is usually combined with Latin: ad or Latin: in:
Latin: ad Alpēs versus "towards the Alps"
Latin: causā "for the sake of" follows a genitive:
Latin: honōris causā "for the sake of (doing) honour"
The word Latin: cum "with" is usually a preposition, but with the personal pronouns Latin: mē, tē, sē, nōbīs, vōbīs "me, you sg., him/herself/themselves, us, you pl." it follows the pronoun and is joined to it in writing:
Latin: cum eō "with him"
Latin: mēcum "with me"
Both Latin: quōcum and Latin: cum quō "with whom" are found.
| Preposition | Grammar case | Comments |
|---|---|---|
| ,, | + abl | from; down from; at, in, on, (of time) after, since (source of action or event) by, of |
| + abl | without (archaic, cf. sine and praeter) | |
| + acc | towards, to, at | |
| , | + acc | towards, against (also an adverb) |
| + acc | before (also an adverb) | |
| +acc | at, by, near, among; ; before, in the presence of, in the writings of, in view of | |
| + gen | for the sake of (normally after its noun; simply the abl. of causa) | |
| + acc | about, around, near; | |
| + acc | around, near, about; regarding, concerning | |
| + acc | (of place and time) near, close, round about | |
| + acc | on, to this, the near side of, short of; before | |
| + acc | on this side of (also an adverb) | |
| + acc &<br />+ abl | without the knowledge of, unknown to (also an adverb). Its use with the ablative is rare. Latin: Clanculum is a variant of this preposition. | |
| + acc | against, opposite to, contrary to, otherwise, in return to, back | |
| + abl | in person, face to face; publicly, openly | |
| + abl | with | |
| + abl | from, concerning, about; down from, out of | |
| + acc | against, opposite; towards, with regard to (sometimes placed after the noun or pronoun) | |
| , | + abl | out of, from |
| + acc | outside of, beyond | |
| , fīnī | + gen | up to (ablative of fīnis). Can also be a postposition. |
| + gen | for the sake of. Usually placed after the noun. | |
| + acc | into, onto, to; about, respecting; according to; against | |
| + abl | in, among, at, on (space); during, at (time) | |
| + acc | below | |
| + acc | between, among; during, while | |
| + acc | within, inside; during; in less than | |
| + acc | nearly; near, close to, just as. Can also follow the noun. | |
| + acc | in the direction of, to, towards; on account of, according to, because of, due to, for (the purpose of); against; facing | |
| + abl | without concealment, openly, publicly, undisguisedly, plainly, unambiguously | |
| + acc | Under one's government or command; In one's disposal or custody; At, with, about, concerning | |
| + acc | through, by means of; during | |
| + acc | behind; in the rear of | |
| + acc | behind (of space); afterwards, after (of time) | |
| + abl | before, in front of, because of | |
| + acc | besides, except; beyond; more than | |
| + abl | for, on behalf of; before; in front, instead of; about; according to; as, like; as befitting | |
| + abl | far, at a distance | |
| + acc | near, nearby, (figuratively) towards, about (in time) | |
| + acc | near, close to, hard by; because of, on account of, for; (rare) through, by means of | |
| + acc | next, along, according to | |
| + abl | with | |
| + abl | without | |
| + acc | under, up to, up under, close to (of a motion); until, before, up to, about | |
| + abl | (to) under, (to) beneath; near to, up to, towards; about, around (time) | |
| + acc | under, underneath; following (in order or rank); in the reign of | |
| + abl | underneath, (figuratively) below inferior | |
| + acc | above, over, beyond; during | |
| + abl | concerning, regarding, about | |
| + acc | above, over, more than, before | |
| + gen &<br />+ abl | (with genitive and ablative) right up to, as far as, just as far as; (with ablative, of a process) up to (a given stage of); (with genitive and ablative, of limitation) to the maximum extent of, within. Used as a postposition. | |
| + acc | across, beyond | |
| , | + acc | towards (postposition, usually combined with Latin: ad or Latin: in) |
| + acc | beyond | |
See main article: Latin numerals.
The first three numbers have masculine, feminine and neuter forms fully declined as follows:
| class=unsortable | Declension | class=unsortable | 1 m | class=unsortable | f | class=unsortable | n | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | 2 m | class=unsortable | f | class=unsortable | n | class=unsortable | class=unsortable | 3 mf | class=unsortable | n | class=unsortable | Br | GL | Wh | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Latin: ūnus|italic=no | Latin: ūna|italic=no | Latin: ūnum|italic=no | Latin: duo|italic=no | Latin: duae|italic=no | Latin: duo|italic=no | Latin: trēs|italic=no | Latin: tria|italic=no | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
| Vocative | Latin: ūne|italic=no | Latin: ūna|italic=no | Latin: ūnum|italic=no | Latin: duo|italic=no | Latin: duae|italic=no | Latin: duo|italic=no | Latin: trēs|italic=no | Latin: tria|italic=no | 2 | 5 | 6 | |||||||||||||||
| Accusative | Latin: ūnum|italic=no | Latin: ūnam|italic=no | Latin: ūnum|italic=no | Latin: duōs/duo|italic=no | Latin: duās|italic=no | Latin: duo|italic=no | Latin: trēs/trīs|italic=no | Latin: tria|italic=no | 3 | 4 | 4 | |||||||||||||||
| Genitive | Latin: ūnīus/-ius|italic=no | Latin: ūnīus|italic=no | Latin: ūnīus|italic=no | Latin: duōrum|italic=no | Latin: duārum|italic=no | Latin: duōrum|italic=no | Latin: trium|italic=no | Latin: trium|italic=no | 4 | 2 | 2 | |||||||||||||||
| Dative | Latin: ūnī|italic=no | Latin: ūnī|italic=no | Latin: ūnī|italic=no | Latin: duōbus|italic=no | Latin: duābus|italic=no | Latin: duōbus|italic=no | Latin: tribus|italic=no | Latin: tribus|italic=no | 5 | 3 | 3 | |||||||||||||||
| Ablative | Latin: ūnō|italic=no | Latin: ūnā|italic=no | Latin: ūnō|italic=no | Latin: duōbus|italic=no | Latin: duābus|italic=no | Latin: duōbus|italic=no | Latin: tribus|italic=no | Latin: tribus|italic=no | 6 | 6 | 5 | |||||||||||||||
Latin: ūnus (one) can also be used in the plural, with plural-only nouns, e.g. Latin: ūna castra "one camp", Latin: ūnae litterae "one letter". For larger numbers plural-only nouns use special numerals: Latin: bīna castra "two camps", Latin: trīna castra "three camps". (See Latin numerals.)
The numbers Latin: quattuor (four) through Latin: decem (ten) are not declined:
Latin: quattuor (4)
Latin: quīnque (5)
Latin: sex (6)
Latin: septem (7)
Latin: octō (8)
Latin: novem (9)
Latin: decem (10)
The "tens" numbers are also not declined:
Latin: vīgintī (20)
Latin: trīgintā (30)
Latin: quadrāgintā (40)
Latin: quīnquāgintā (50)
Latin: sexāgintā (60)
Latin: septuāgintā (70)
Latin: octōgintā (80)
Latin: nōnāgintā (90)
The numbers 11 to 17 are formed by affixation of the corresponding digit to the base Latin: -decim, hence Latin: ūndecim, duodecim, tredecim, quattuordecim, quīndecim, sēdecim, septendecim. The numbers 18 and 19 are formed by subtracting 2 and 1, respectively, from 20: Latin: duodēvīgintī and Latin: ūndēvīgintī. For the numbers 21 to 27, the digits either follow or are added to 20 by the conjunction Latin: et: Latin: vīgintī ūnus or Latin: ūnus et vīgintī, vīgintī duo or Latin: duo et vīgintī etc. The numbers 28 and 29 are again formed by subtraction: Latin: duodētrīgintā and Latin: ūndētrīgintā. Each group of ten numerals through 100 follows the patterns of the 20s but 98 is Latin: nōnāgintā octō and 99 is Latin: nōnāgintā novem rather than *Latin: duodēcentum and *Latin: ūndēcentum respectively.
Compounds ending in 1 2 and 3 are the only ones to decline:
I saw 20 blackbirds = Latin: vīgintī merulās vīdī
I saw 22 blackbirds = Latin: vīgintī duās merulās vīdī (where Latin: duās changes to agree with Latin: merulās)
The "hundreds" numbers are the following:
Latin: centum (indeclinable)
Latin: ducentī, -ae, -a (200)
Latin: trecentī, -ae, -a (300)
Latin: quadringentī, -ae, -a (400)
Latin: quīngentī, -ae, -a (500)
Latin: sēscentī, -ae, -a (600)
Latin: septingentī, -ae, -a (700)
Latin: octingentī, -ae, -a (800)
Latin: nōngentī, -ae, -a (900)
However, 1000 is Latin: mille, an indeclinable adjective, but multiples such as Latin: duo mīlia (2000) have Latin: mīlia as a neuter plural substantive followed by a partitive genitive:
I saw a thousand lions = Latin: mīlle leōnēs vīdī
I saw three thousand lions = Latin: tria mīlia leōnum vīdī
Ordinal numbers are all adjectives with regular first- and second-declension endings. Most are built off of the stems of cardinal numbers (for example, Latin: trīcēsimus, -a, -um (30th) from Latin: trīgintā (30), Latin: sēscentēsimus, -a, -um Latin: nōnus, -a, -um (609th) for Latin: sēscentī novem (609). However, "first" is Latin: prīmus, -a, -um, and "second" is Latin: secundus, -a, -um (literally "following" the first; Latin: sequi means "to follow").
Each tense has endings corresponding to three persons in the singular, known as 1st person singular ("I"), 2nd person singular ("you sg."), 3rd person singular ("he, she, it"), and three in the plural, known as 1st person plural ("we"), 2nd person plural ("you pl."), and 3rd person plural ("they"). Unlike Ancient Greek, there is no dual number in the Latin verb.
| 1st sg. 2nd sg. 3rd sg. | I you sg. he, she, it | Latin: amō<br />amās<br />amat|italic=no | I love you sg. love he, she, it loves |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pl. 2nd pl. 3rd pl. | we you pl. they | Latin: amāmus<br />amātis<br />amant|italic=no | we love you pl. love they love |
Unlike in Spanish, French, and other Romance languages, there are no respectful 2nd person forms in Latin grammar: the 2nd person singular is used even when addressing a person of high status. However, the 1st person plural is often used to mean "I".
Most verbs do not show grammatical gender: the same ending is used whether the subject is "he", "she", or "it". However, when a verb is made periphrastically out of a participle and part of the verb Latin: sum "I am", the participle shows gender, for example:
Impersonal verbs, such as Latin: nūntiātum est "it was reported", are neuter singular.
Latin verbs have two voices, active (e.g. Latin: dūcō "I lead") and passive (e.g. Latin: dūcor "I am led").
| Active | (doing) | Latin: dūcō|italic=no | I lead, I am leading |
|---|---|---|---|
| Passive | (being done) | Latin: dūcor|italic=no | I am led, I am being led |
In addition there are a few verbs (e.g. Latin: sequor "I follow") which have the endings of passive verbs but with an active meaning, a relic of the older mediopassive voice. These verbs are known as deponent verbs.Intransitive verbs such as Latin: sum "I am" usually have no passive voice. However, some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice, but only when impersonal, e.g. Latin: pugnātum est "(a battle) was fought", Latin: ventum est "they came" (literally, "it was come").
Latin verbs have three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative:
| Indicative | (actual) | Latin: dūcit|italic=no | he leads, he is leading |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subjunctive | (potential) | Latin: dūcat|italic=no | he may/would/should lead |
| Imperative | (command) | Latin: dūc!|italic=no | lead! |
Ordinary statements such as Latin: dūcō "I lead" or Latin: vēnit "he came" are said to be in the indicative mood. The subjunctive mood (e.g. Latin: dūcat "he may lead, he would lead" or Latin: dūxisset "he would have led") is used for potential or hypothetical statements, wishes, and also in reported speech and certain types of subordinate clause. The imperative mood (e.g. Latin: dūc "lead!") is a command.
In addition Latin verbs have a number of non-finite forms, such as the infinitive and various participles.
Most Latin verbs are regular and follow one of the five patterns below. These are referred to as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th conjugation, according to whether the infinitive ends in Latin: -āre, -ēre, -ere or Latin: -īre. (Verbs like Latin: capiō are regarded as variations of the 3rd conjugation, with some forms like those of the 4th conjugation.)
Other verbs like Latin: sum "I am" are irregular and have their own pattern.
| REGULAR | I love | I see | I lead | I capture | I hear | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present tense active | I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | Latin: amō<br />amās<br />amat<br />amāmus<br />amātis<br />amant|italic=no | Latin: videō<br />vidēs<br />videt<br />vidēmus<br />vidētis<br />vident|italic=no | Latin: dūcō<br />dūcis<br />dūcit<br />dūcimus<br />dūcitis<br />ducunt|italic=no | Latin: capiō<br />capis<br />capit<br />capimus<br />capitis<br />capiunt|italic=no | Latin: audiō<br />audīs<br />audit<br />audīmus<br />audītis<br />audiunt|italic=no |
| Infinitive | to | Latin: amāre|italic=no (1) | Latin: vidēre|italic=no (2) | Latin: dūcere|italic=no (3) | Latin: capere|italic=no (3) | Latin: audīre|italic=no (4) |
| I am loved | I am seen | I am led | I am captured | I am heard | ||
| Present tense passive | I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | Latin: amor<br />amāris<br />amātur<br />amāmur<br />amāminī<br />amantur|italic=no | Latin: videor<br />vidēris<br />vidētur<br />vidēmur<br />vidēminī<br />videntur|italic=no | Latin: dūcor<br />dūceris<br />dūcitur<br />dūcimur<br />dūciminī<br />ducuntur|italic=no | Latin: capior<br />caperis<br />capitur<br />capimur<br />capiminī<br />capiuntur|italic=no | Latin: audior<br />audīris<br />audītur<br />audīmur<br />audīminī<br />audiuntur|italic=no |
| Infinitive | to | Latin: amārī|italic=no (1) | Latin: vidērī|italic=no (2) | Latin: dūcī|italic=no (3) | Latin: capī|italic=no (3) | Latin: audīrī|italic=no (4) |
| IRREGULAR | I am | I am able | I bring | I want | I go | |
| Present tense | I you sg. he, she, it we you pl. they | Latin: sum<br />es<br />est<br />sumus<br />estis<br />sunt|italic=no | Latin: possum<br />potes<br />potest<br />possumus<br />potestis<br />possunt|italic=no | Latin: ferō<br />fers<br />fert<br />ferimus<br />fertis<br />ferunt|italic=no | Latin: volō<br />vīs<br />vult<br />volumus<br />vultis<br />volunt|italic=no | Latin: eō<br />īs<br />it<br />īmus<br />ītis<br />eunt|italic=no |
| Infinitive | to | Latin: esse|italic=no | Latin: posse|italic=no | Latin: ferre|italic=no | Latin: velle|italic=no | Latin: īre|italic=no |
Compound verbs such as Latin: adsum "I am present", Latin: nōlō "I don't want", Latin: redeō "I go back", etc., usually have the same endings as the simple verbs from which they are made.
See main article: Latin tenses.
Latin verbs have six basic tenses in the indicative mood. Three of these are based on the present stem (e.g. dūc-) and three on the perfect stem (e.g. dūx-).
In addition, there are four tenses in the subjunctive mood, and two in the imperative.
Further tenses can be made periphrastically by combining participles with the verbs Latin: sum "I am" or Latin: habeō "I have", for example Latin: ductūrus eram "I was going to lead" or Latin: ductum habeō "I have led".
The following table gives the various forms of a 3rd conjugation verb Latin: dūcō. As with other verbs, three different stems are needed to make the various tenses: Latin: dūc- in the three non-perfect tenses, Latin: dūx- in the three perfect tenses, and Latin: duct- in the perfect participle and supine. The perfect and supine stems for any particular verb cannot always be predicted and usually have to be looked up in a dictionary.
| INDICATIVE | Active | Passive | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Latin: dūcō|italic=no Latin: dūcis|italic=no Latin: dūcit|italic=no Latin: dūcimus|italic=no Latin: dūcitis|italic=no Latin: dūcunt|italic=no | I lead, I am leading you lead he/she/it leads we lead you pl. lead they lead | Latin: dūcor|italic=no Latin: dūceris|italic=no Latin: dūcitur|italic=no Latin: dūcimur|italic=no Latin: dūciminī|italic=no Latin: dūcuntur|italic=no | I am led, I am being led you are led he/she/it is led we are led you pl. are led they are led | ||
| Future | Latin: dūcam|italic=no Latin: dūcēs|italic=no Latin: dūcet|italic=no Latin: dūcēmus|italic=no Latin: dūcētis|italic=no Latin: dūcent|italic=no | I will lead, I will be leading you will lead he/she/it will lead we will lead you pl. will lead they will lead | Latin: dūcar|italic=no Latin: dūcēris/-e|italic=no Latin: dūcētur|italic=no Latin: dūcēmur|italic=no Latin: dūcēminī|italic=no Latin: dūcentur|italic=no | I will be led, I will be being led you will be led he/she/it will be led we will be led you pl. will be led they will be led | ||
| Imperfect | Latin: dūcēbam|italic=no Latin: dūcēbās|italic=no Latin: dūcēbat|italic=no Latin: dūcēbāmus|italic=no Latin: dūcēbātis|italic=no Latin: dūcēbant|italic=no | I was leading, used to lead you were leading he/she/it was leading we were leading you pl. were leading they were leading | Latin: dūcēbar|italic=no Latin: dūcēbāris/-re|italic=no Latin: dūcēbātur|italic=no Latin: dūcēbāmur|italic=no Latin: dūcēbāminī|italic=no Latin: dūcēbantur|italic=no | I was being led, I used to be led you were being led he/she/it was being led we were being led you pl. were being led they were being led | ||
| Perfect | Latin: dūxī|italic=no Latin: dūxistī|italic=no Latin: dūxit|italic=no Latin: dūximus|italic=no Latin: dūxistis|italic=no Latin: dūxērunt/-ēre|italic=no | I led, I have led you led he/she/it led we led you pl. led they led | Latin: ductus sum|italic=no Latin: ductus es|italic=no Latin: ductus est|italic=no Latin: ductī sumus|italic=no Latin: ductī estis|italic=no Latin: ductī sunt|italic=no | I was led, I have been led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led | ||
| Future Perfect | Latin: dūxerō|italic=no Latin: dūxerīs/-is|italic=no Latin: dūxerit|italic=no Latin: dūxerīmus|italic=no Latin: dūxerītis|italic=no Latin: dūxerint|italic=no | I will have led you will have led he/she/it will have led we will have led you pl. will have led they will have led | Latin: ductus erō|italic=no Latin: ductus eris|italic=no Latin: ductus erit|italic=no Latin: ductī erimus|italic=no Latin: ductī eritis|italic=no Latin: ductī erunt|italic=no | I will have been led you will have been led he will have been led we will have been led you pl. will have been led they will have been led | ||
| Pluperfect | Latin: dūxeram|italic=no Latin: dūxerās|italic=no Latin: dūxerat|italic=no Latin: dūxerāmus|italic=no Latin: dūxerātis|italic=no Latin: dūxerant|italic=no | I had led you had led he/she/it had led we had led you pl. had led they had led | Latin: ductus eram|italic=no Latin: ductus erās|italic=no Latin: ductus erat|italic=no Latin: ductī erāmus|italic=no Latin: ductī erātis|italic=no Latin: ductī erant|italic=no | I had been led you had been led he had been led we had been led you pl. had been led they had been led | ||
| SUBJUNCTIVE | ||||||
| Present | Latin: dūcam|italic=no Latin: dūcās|italic=no Latin: dūcat|italic=no Latin: dūcāmus|italic=no Latin: dūcātis|italic=no Latin: dūcant|italic=no | I may lead, I would lead you would lead he/she/it would lead we would lead you pl. would lead they would lead | Latin: dūcar|italic=no Latin: dūcāris|italic=no Latin: dūcātur|italic=no Latin: dūcāmur|italic=no Latin: dūcāminī|italic=no Latin: dūcantur|italic=no | I may be led, I would be led you would be led he/she/it would be led we would be led you pl. would be led they would be led | ||
| Imperfect | Latin: dūcerem|italic=no Latin: dūcerēs|italic=no Latin: dūceret|italic=no Latin: dūcerēmus|italic=no Latin: dūcerētis|italic=no Latin: dūcerent|italic=no | I might lead, should lead you might lead he/she/it might lead we might lead you pl. might lead they might lead | Latin: dūcerer|italic=no Latin: dūcerēris|italic=no Latin: dūcerētur|italic=no Latin: dūcerēmur|italic=no Latin: dūcerēminī|italic=no Latin: dūcerentur|italic=no | I might be led you might be led he/she/it might be led we might be led you pl. might be led they might be led | ||
| Perfect | Latin: dūxerim|italic=no Latin: dūxerīs|italic=no Latin: dūxerit|italic=no Latin: dūxerīmus|italic=no Latin: dūxerītis|italic=no Latin: dūxerint|italic=no | I would have led, I led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would lead they would have led | Latin: ductus sim|italic=no Latin: ductus sīs|italic=no Latin: ductus sit|italic=no Latin: ductī sīmus|italic=no Latin: ductī sītis|italic=no Latin: ductī sint|italic=no | I would have been led, I was led you were led he was led we were led you pl. were led they were led | ||
| Pluperfect | Latin: dūxissem|italic=no Latin: dūxissēs|italic=no Latin: dūxisset|italic=no Latin: dūxissēmus|italic=no Latin: dūxissētis|italic=no Latin: dūxissent|italic=no | I would have led, I had led you would have led he/she/it would have led we would have led you pl. would have led they would have led | Latin: ductus essem|italic=no Latin: ductus essēs|italic=no Latin: ductus esset|italic=no Latin: ductī essēmus|italic=no Latin: ductī essētis|italic=no Latin: ductī essent|italic=no | I would have been led you would have been led he would have been led we would have been led you pl. would have been led they would have been led | ||
| IMPERATIVE | ||||||
| Present | Latin: dūc!|italic=no Latin: dūcite!|italic=no | lead! (sg.) lead | (pl.) | Latin: (dūcere!)|italic=no (Latin: dūciminī!|italic=no) | be led! be led | (pl.) |
| Future | Latin: dūcitō!|italic=no Latin: dūcitōte!|italic=no | lead! (sg.) lead | (pl.) | |||
| 3rd person | Latin: dūcitō|italic=no Latin: dūcuntō|italic=no | he must lead they must lead | ||||
| INFINITIVES | ||||||
| Present | Latin: dūcere|italic=no | to lead | Latin: dūcī|italic=no | to be led | ||
| Future | Latin: ductūrus esse|italic=no | to be going to lead | Latin: ductum īrī|italic=no | to be going to be led | ||
| Perfect | Latin: dūxisse|italic=no | to have led | Latin: ductus esse|italic=no | to have been led | ||
| Periphrastic perfect | Latin: ductūrus fuisse|italic=no | to have been going to lead | ||||
| PARTICIPLES | ||||||
| Present | Latin: dūcēns|italic=no Latin: dūcentēs|italic=no | (while) leading (sg.) (while) leading (pl.) | ||||
| Future | Latin: ductūrus/a/um|italic=no | going to lead | ||||
| Perfect | Latin: ductus/a/um|italic=no | having been led | ||||
| GERUNDIVE | Latin: dūcendus/a/um|italic=no | (needing) to be led | ||||
| GERUND | Latin: ad dūcendum|italic=no Latin: dūcendī|italic=no Latin: dūcendō|italic=no | with a view to leading of leading by leading | ||||
| SUPINE | Latin: ductum (it)|italic=no Latin: (facile) ductū|italic=no | (he goes) in order to lead (easy) to lead | ||||
A distinction between perfective aspect (I did) and imperfective aspect (I was doing) is found only in the past in Latin. In the present or future, the same tenses have both aspectual meanings.
Unlike in Ancient Greek or modern English, there is no distinction between perfect (I have done) and simple past (I did). The same tense, known in Latin grammar as the perfect tense, has both meanings.
The passive imperative is almost never used except in deponent verbs, e.g. Latin: sequere mē! "follow me!"
The different conjugations differ in some tenses. For example, in the future tense:
In the imperfect indicative:
They also differ in the present subjunctive:
The imperfect subjunctive of every verb looks like the infinitive + an ending:
In the various perfect tenses, all verbs have regular endings. However, the stem to which the perfect endings are added cannot always be guessed, and so is given in dictionaries.
See main article: Latin word order. Latin allows a very flexible word order because of its inflectional syntax. Ordinary prose tended to follow the pattern of subject, direct object, indirect object, adverbial words or phrases, verb (with the proviso that when noun and verb make a compound, as Latin: impetum facio "I attack / make an attack" the noun is generally placed close to the verb). Any extra but subordinate verb, such as an infinitive, is placed before the main verb. Adjectives and participles usually directly follow nouns unless they are adjectives of beauty, size, quantity, goodness, or truth, in which case they usually precede the noun being modified. However, departures from these rules are frequent.
Relative clauses are commonly placed after the antecedent that the relative pronoun describes. Since grammatical function in a sentence is based not on word order but on inflection, the usual word order in Latin was often abandoned with no detriment to understanding but with various changes in emphasis.
While these patterns of word order were the most frequent in Classical Latin prose, they were frequently varied. The strongest surviving evidence suggests that the word order of colloquial Latin was mostly Subject-Object-Verb. That can be found in some very conservative Romance languages, such as Sardinian and Sicilian in which the verb is still often placed at the end of the sentence (see Vulgar Latin). On the other hand, subject-verb-object word order was probably also common in ancient Latin conversation, as it is prominent in the Romance languages, which evolved from Latin.
In poetry, however, word order was often changed for the sake of the meter for which vowel quantity (short vowels vs. long vowels and diphthongs) and consonant clusters, not rhyme and word stress, governed the patterns. One must bear in mind that poets in the Roman world wrote primarily for the ear, not the eye; many premiered their work in recitation for an audience. Hence, variations in word order served a rhetorical as well as a metrical purpose; they certainly did not prevent understanding.
In Virgil's Eclogues, for example, he writes, Latin: Omnia vincit amor, et nōs cēdāmus amōrī!: "Love conquers all, let us too yield to love!". The words Latin: omnia (all), amor (love) and Latin: amōrī (to love) are thrown into relief by their unusual position in their respective phrases.
The ending of the common Roman name Mārcus is different in each of the following pairs of examples because of its grammatical usage in each pair. The ordering in the second sentence of each pair would be correct in Latin and clearly understood, whereas in English it is awkward, at best, and meaningless, at worst:
Latin: Mārc'''us''' ferit Cornēliam
Marcus hits Cornelia. (subject–verb–object)
Latin: Mārc'''us''' Cornēliam ferit
Marcus Cornelia hits. (subject–object–verb)
Latin: Cornēlia dedit Mārc'''ō''' dōnum
Cornelia gave Marcus a gift. (subject–verb–indirect object–direct object)
Latin: Cornēlia Mārc'''ō''' dōnum dedit
Cornelia (to) Marcus a gift gave. (subject–indirect object–direct object–verb)