La Prensa (San Antonio) Explained

La Prensa
Type:Daily newspaper
Foundation:February 13, 1913
Ceased Publication:January 31, 1963
Founders:Ignacio E. Lozano, Sr.
Publisher:Lozano Newspapers, Inc.
Headquarters:San Antonio, Texas
Oclc:9505681

La Prensa ("The Press") was an American Spanish-language daily newspaper based in San Antonio, Texas, USA, that ran from February 13, 1913, to May 29, 1959, under the Lozano family, then until January 31, 1963, under successive owners.[1] [2] [3] [4]

History of La Prensa

La Prensa was founded on February 13, 1913, in San Antonio as a weekly newspaper by Ignacio Eugenio Lozano, Sr. (1886–1953), a prominent exile of Mexico, native of Nuevo Leon, and supporter of Porfirio Diaz leading up to, and throughout the Mexican Revolution.[5] Nine days later, Mexico's President Francisco I. Madero was assassinated. The era was coincident with a large influx of Mexican exiles in America who had fled after a series of revolutionary-related civil unrest.[6] [7] La Prensa, according to historian Richard Griswold del Castillo, PhD, had two missions: (i) to serve as the voice of the Mexican exile community and (ii) to defend and represent the views of the wealthy Mexican exiles who favored Diaz. La Prensa's editorials strongly challenged Mexican public policy.[8] [9] The upshot was that its editorial positions mirrored the political ideologies of Lozano.[10]

From 1913 to 1954, La Prensa was the leading Spanish-language newspaper circulating in South Texas. For many years, it was the most widely circulated Spanish-language newspaper in the United States and had an international readership. During its first two decades, it covered topics pertinent to exiles of the Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to 1930. The lifespan of La Prensa covered eras of World War I, the decline of organized labor in the U.S. during the 1920s, the rise in the U.S. stock market between 1924 and 1929, the Great Crash, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the Great Depression that followed, the New Deal, World War II, and the emergence of the U.S. as a superpower. Yet through all that, in contrast to mainstream newspapers in the U.S., La Prensa devoted considerable coverage to matters relating to Mexico, and was the leading publication in opposition to the Mexican Revolution. For mainstream U.S. newspapers, matters in Europe were more important than matters in Mexico, which positioned La Prensa in an elevated role as a prime-source for important news involving Mexico.[11] [12]

La Prensa was also a leading voice for Mexican culture, which at the time, was a renaissance of literature, film, visual arts (including muralism), and music (including Carlos Chávez). For Mexico, it was a vibrant period, and yet one of economic challenges and public policy shifts.

La Prensa's domestic and international readership peaked during the Mexican Revolution, due largely to its position as the leading U.S. publication covering Mexico; and, unlike the print media of Mexico, La Prensa was free to print news and editorials of its choosing.[13] In the 1920s, Los Angeles surpassed San Antonio as the U.S. city with the largest concentration of Mexicans.[14] In the same decade, La Prensa's largest readership shifted to Los Angeles. On September 16, 1926, (Mexican Independence Day), Lozano launched the Los Angeles-based Spanish-language daily newspaper, La Opinión.[15] [16] [17] [18] As of the current date – 2=mdy — La Opinión is in its year. It is the nation's oldest Mexican-American daily newspaper, the US's largest Spanish-language daily newspaper, and is still directed by the Lozano family. La Opinión is the enduring legacy of La Prensa.

After the Mexican Revolution, another Mexican cultural renaissance flourished,[19] giving more rich material for La Prensa and the two U.S. cities with the largest Mexican and Mexican-American populations. New York, at the time, had a large Spanish-speaking population, but it was not predominately Mexican.

In 1936, following the Mexican Revolution, the Spanish Civil War broke-out. La Prensa was an important publication for politically engaged people of Mexico and exiled Mexicans in the U.S. involved in helping integrate Spanish exiles who were fleeing falangism. In 1953, the year that Lozano died, the Cuban Revolution began.

Yet, circulation of La Prensa declined in the late 1950s due to several factors, namely a waning public yearning to restore pre-Mexican Revolution values, a drop in Spanish literacy by writers and readers of newer generations of U.S.-born American citizens of Mexican ancestry, and a desire by newer generations to assimilate and embrace the pop culture of the post-swing and pre-rock-n-roll eras.

Given that La Prensa, under its founders, was strongly linked to its view of conservative pre-Revolution Mexican values, some scholars attribute its decline to being stuck in a bygone era while major cultural changes were occurring in new-generation Mexican-Americans – changes that included the Americanization of La Prensa's readership. The Lozono family – who sold La Prensa at a low in 1959 but retained their Los Angeles newspaper, La Opinión — struggled with changes during the decade that followed the death of their patriarch, but they had several advantages over the successive owners of La Prensa. The new generation of Lozanos, led by the American-born Ignacio E. Lozano, Jr., identified with forward-thinking Americans of Mexican ancestry. Moreover, Ignacio, Jr. had experience of having worked in the family business with the mentoring of a lifetime from his father, mother and executives close to the family.

"Mexico abroad" was a fashionable term among many Mexican exiles. La Prensa was distinctly different from other major U.S. Spanish-language newspapers because of its allegiance to Mexico and its people.

In the latter part of the 19th century, the phrase "Mexican-American",[20] as an ethnic classification or reference, was still commonly used, but it waned in favor of other expressions. Some historians and scholars have opined that the waning might have been a result of:

  1. a loss of Mexican cultural values or allegiance to Mexico by newer generations born in America
  2. fatigue from stereotyping
  3. a broader mix of Spanish-speaking Americans from other countries blurring lines of ethnic identity
  4. a desire for a broader ethnic or full-American or worldly or hipper identity by Mexican-Americans
  5. dilution degrees of Mexican-American ethnicity of successive generations
  6. a disavowal of the patriarchal, conservative values attached to the phrase by the early 19th-century generation of Mexican exiles
  7. any combination(s) thereof

The headquarters for La Prensa always remained in San Antonio. In the era when the Lozano family controlled both La Prensa and La Opinión, until 1956, the headquarters for both remained in San Antonio.

Editorial bent

Conservative political stance towards the Mexican Revolution

The right-wing views harbored by Mexican Revolution era exiles in the U.S. had some similarities to the right-wing views of Cuban exiles from the Cuban Revolution. That is, the so-called labor classes wanted change while wealthier classes, particularity those who fled, feared that change would result in economic ruin – and resisting change would threaten their lives. From 1913, throughout the Mexican Revolution, the editorials of La Prensa included contributions by prominent Mexican intellectual exiles that supported Porfirista policies – policies that included strongman political stability, anti-socialist pro-foreign economic intervention, and a united nationalistic society. Its negative views of the revolution complicated the Texas Mexican's attitudes towards both Mexico and the U.S.

In contrast to La Prensa's stance against labor uprisings in Mexico during the Revolution, La Prensa was an influential watchdog for bigotry and labor abuses against Mexican-Americans in the U.S. during the same period. And, in that same period, La Prensa supported Mexican-American non-union labor, notably in industries grappling with labor disputes. In one case, La Prensa supported Mexican-American labor at Bethlehem Steel in Pittsburgh in 1923.[21] The April 17, 1923, edition of La Prensa announced that (i) a train left that day for Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, with 400 workers aboard, (ii) 400 more were to leave on April 22, 1923, and (iii) 300 workers had left two weeks earlier.

Third generation progressive political influence in the U.S.

Many descendants of La Prensa journalists became leading exponents of progressive politics in America, including Lozano's granddaughter, Monica C. Lozano and Leonides González's son, Henry B. Gonzalez.

Loyalty to Mexico

Lozano contended that all Mexicans were the same and urged them to return and rebuild their homeland. One of his editors, Federico Allen Hinojosa, published a book in 1940 in which he asserted that members of the El México de Afuera — the title of the book which translates to "Exiles from Mexico" — had distinguished themselves by not only retaining their faith (in Catholicism) and devotion (to Mexican nationalism) that their non-exiled Mexican counterparts had lost, they achieved a reconquest of the lost lands that the United States had taken from Mexico in the 19th century.[22] While La Prensa articulated the political views of its publisher, it contained news and features about the Mexican homeland that appealed to Mexicans in the U.S. who harbored a wide spectrum of political views.

Provocative editorials towards the Mexican Revolutionary Party

On November 6, 1934, the Associated Press reported that distribution of La Prensa and La Opinión was barred from Mexico by the government because of articles criticizing the ousting of Catholic officials from government over opposition against the Revolutionary Party-controlled government's plan to contest so-called Catholic aggression and to, among other things, transfer the role of education to the government. Archbishop Pascual Diaz of Mexico had gone into hiding.[23]

Publishing influence in the Southwest

San Antonio became the publishing center for Hispanics in the Southwest, and housed more Spanish-language publishing houses than any other city in the United States. During the 1920s and 1930s, San Antonio was home to:

Influence in fine arts

La Prensa encouraged readers to attend the opera, particularly the Chicago Civic Opera when it was in town. It also urged readers to listen to classical music on the radio, "Música Simfónica". In an apparent attempt to cultivate Mexican heritage, La Prensa urged its readers to attend Mexican films, lectures by Mexican and Spanish intellectuals, and theater. Many Mexican-Americans, especially rico exiles, wanted to preserve their national heritage, Lo Mexicano, whereas lower income Mexican-Americans preferred to create their own cultural traditions.[26]

As an example of La Prensa's influence on performing artists, internationally acclaimed Mexican violinist Silvestre Revueltas had been part of a fine arts movement in Mexico that rose to world rank. Revueltas' trio performed at San Antonio's Teatro Nacional on April 8, 1926 – a concert sponsorship by El Club Mexicano de Bellas Artes, San Antonio, of which Lozano's wife, Alicia Elizondo de Lozano, was an officer. Members of the Revueltas trio included soprano Lupe Medina de Ortega (née Guadalupe Medina; 1892–1953)[27] and the pianist Francisco Agea Hermosa (1900–1970),[28] for whom it was their U.S. debut. Revueltas took-up residence and performed in San Antonio from about 1926 to 1929. His decision to do so was influenced by lavish reviews in the San Antonio Express and La Prensa.[29]

Attitudes towards modern women

In a treatise about women at La Prensa, the scholar Nancy A. Aguirre, PhD, states that La Prensa was critical of women seeking men's roles, particularly rica (rich) women.[30]

Influence on popular culture

Dances by Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys were advertised in La Prensa in the 1940s and were well-attended by Mexican-Americans.[31]

Attitudes towards fashion

In a 1940 description of a zoot suit, a writer for La Prensa gave a sarcastic description:

Management

Ignacio Lozano and his wife, Alicia Elizondo Lozano, operated both papers. After Ignacio's death from cancer in 1953, his son, Ignacio E. Lozano, Jr., at age 26, took over as publisher of La Opinión and his widow returned to San Antonio to continue operations, with Leonides González (1875–1966), La Prensa's longtime business manager. González was the father of Henry B. Gonzalez, who in 1961, became a U.S. Congressman. He was also the grandfather of Charlie Gonzalez, who in 1999, also became a U.S. Congressman.

1957 suspension of La Prensa

González retired in 1957 and on June 16 (Sunday), 1957, the paper suspended operation. It reappeared on July 11, 1957, as a weekly tabloid. On the same day, González announced his resignation.[32]

From then until 1959, La Prensa continued as a weekly under Lozano management with Ignacio E. Lozano, Jr., as director, Alica Lozano as manager, and Manuel Ruiz Ibañez as editor-in-chief. The last issue under the Lozano family was published on May 29, 1959, volume 47, number 15.

1959 sale of La Prensa

La Prensa was sold to Texas millionaire-philanthropist Dudley Tarleton Dougherty (1924–1978) and the economist Eduardo Grenas-Gooding (1887–1968), formerly of Colombia, Mexico, and Cuba. The first issue under the new owners was published on June 4, 1959, as a weekly. The new owners announced their intent to restore publication as a daily in September 1959 and extensive expansion into Central and South America, but neither ever materialized.

On December 3, 1959, Dougherty appointed Ed Harllee (né Arthur Edward Harllee; 1929–2010) as general manager of La Prensa. Raymond Palmer Orr (born 1924) continued as executive editor.[33]

December 10, 1959

A pilot film made for television, Gringo, produced Ron Gorton in co-operation with La Prensa Publishing Co. premiered in San Antonio on December 10, 1959.[34]

1960 relocation of printing press

Beginning August 4, 1960, La Prensa moved its printing to facilities of the Seguin Gazette, in Seguin, Texas, owned by former San Antonio newspaperman John Clifton Taylor Jr. (1925–2014). Ed Castillo remained as managing editor and Octavio R. Costa remained as general manager of what then was 10 employees.[35]

1961 sale of La Prensa

On May 11, 1961, Robert Turgot Brinsmade (né Robert Turgot Brinsmade; 1913–1994), an American international lawyer, purchased La Prensa and announced that he would restore it to a daily publication. Ed Castillo, who had been the managing editor since November 1959, remained in that role. Brinsmade remained owner and publisher of La Prensa until its demise in 1963.

His father, Robert Bruce Brinsmade, PhD (1873–1936), was an American mining engineer, who through his work in mining, became a labor rights advocate and exponent of the economist Henry George.[36] Robert Turgot Brinsmade's maternal uncle, Harry Steenbock, PhD (1886–1967), was a biochemistry professor at the University of Wisconsin, inventor, and one of the discoverers of vitamins D, A and B.

Brinsmade, who had been practicing law in Caracas, admitted that he collaborated in the overthrow of Acción Democrática, the Venezuelan political party that governed from 1945 to 1948, when it ended by a coup d'état. He believed that Rómulo Betancourt, who became president in 1945 by coup d'état, and Acción Democrática, intended to set up a Marxist form of government in Venezuela by force of arms, if necessary, and justified his actions, and indicated that his actions had the support of the U.S. government. Brinsmade was roundly informed by Ambassador Walter J. Donnelly in 1948 that he had damaged long-standing U.S. interests by compromising its reputation for neutrality and abstention from political activities. The U.S. Department of State expressed "strong disapproval" of his involvement.[37]

Robert Turgot Brinsmade married three times. He was a widower from his 1939 marriage to Mollye Catherine Johnson (1920–1952) and a 1955 divorcee from his 1953 marriage to Ruth Elizabeth Ericsson (born 1914), who had been, in 1941, selected in New York by John Robert Powers to be a Miss Subways model, which drew 258 marriage proposals, all of which she rejected.[38] In 1961, he married Suzanne Joy Metz (maiden; born 1934) in Mexico City after having spent time in Caracas, Venezuela, as owner and publisher of the newspaper La Calle ("The Street"). Brinsgate and his wife settled in Houston.[39] He had been a founding shareholder in 1948 in Sivensa (Siderúrgica Venezolana, S.A.), a Venezuelan steel company.[40]

Final issue and involuntary liquidation of La Prensa

The last issue of La Prensa, by then a bilingual tabloid, was published on January 31, 1963, just two weeks short of the paper's 50th anniversary. In a final blow, the Internal Revenue Service seized La Prensa's assets for back taxes and sold them at auction on March 28, 1963.

Selected personnel

Publishers

Editors

Managing editors

Business manager

Mechanical staff

Contributors

Writers

Poets

Selected archival access to La Prensa

February 13, 1913, to May 28, 1959

February 13, 1913, to May 28, 1959

Microfilm Center, Inc.

241 reels

positive; 35 mm

Other resources

Statements of ownership

March 1, 1916

April 1, 1919

October 1, 1920

April 1, 1922

October 1, 1927

October 1, 1934

Ignncio E. Lozano

Alicia E. de Lozano

September 30, 1941

Ignncio E. Lozano

Alicia E. de Lozano

October 1, 1958, operational personnel of La Prensa was composed of:

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: La Prensa. Nora E. Ríos McMillan . . June 15, 2010 . February 12, 2015.
  2. Book: La Prensa of San Antonio and its literary page, 1913 to 1915 (dissertation). Onofre di Stefano . . 1983.
    - Encyclopedia: Hispanic Media. History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedi . Margaret A. Blanchard . . 1998. 251–252. 40284462 . Google books.
  3. 'Mexico Abroad,' the Vasconcelista Movement in the United States . Arturo Santamaría Gómiz . Voices of Mexico . 50 . January 2000. 48–51 . 0186-9418 . Issuu.
  4. Book: US Popular Print Culture: 1860–192 . 6 . Christine Bold . . 2011 . 467 . 727942262 . Google Books.
  5. Ignacio E. Lozano: The Mexican Exile Publisher Who Conquered San Antonio and Los Angeles . . 21 . 1 . Winter 2004 . 75 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220641/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/13207544 . 3 March 2016 .
  6. News: La Prensa Marks 38th Anniversary. San Antonio Express. February 14, 1951.
  7. Book: The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913–2000 . Richard A. Buitron. . 2004. 40 . 57387708 . Google Books.
  8. The Mexican Revolution and the Spanish-Language Press in the Borderlands . Richard Griswold del Castillo. Journalism History . California State University, Northridge, Department of Journalism. 4 . 2 . Summer 1977 . 42–47 . 698903190.
  9. Book: The making of the Mexican-American Mind, San Antonio, Texas, 1929–1941: A Social and Intellectual History of an Ethnic Community. Richard A. Garcia . . 1980 . 6. 8530711.
  10. La Opinión, A Mexican Exile Newspaper: A Content Analysis of Its First Years, 1926–1929 . Francine Medeiros . Aztlán . . 11 . 1 . Spring 1980 . 65–88 . 0005-2604.
  11. Book: The Mexican Revolution: Conflict and Consolidation, 1910–1940 . Douglas W. Richmond . Sam W. Haynes . . 2013 . 125–126 . 843881910 . Google Books.
    - Book: Hispanic-American Writers. New . Harold Bloom. . 2008 . 148 . 815769603 . Google Books.
  12. Book: Struggling to Become American. Robin Santos Doak . . 2007. 47 . 70114402 . Google Books.
  13. News: La Prensa To Shut Down. San Antonio Light. June 14, 1957. 20.
  14. Book: Making Latino News: Race, Language, Class. América Beatrice Rodriguez, PhD . SAGE Publications. 1999 . 21 . 41131628 . Google Books.
  15. Web site: Interview of Mónica Lozano . Shirley Anne Biagi . Oral History Project: Women In Journalism . . 31726985.
    Part 1, December 13, 1993
    Part 2, December 14, 1993
    Part 3, April 15, 1994
  16. News: Stuck in Translation . Sandra Hernandez . . June 17, 1999 . June 21, 2016 . December 16, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091216015155/http://www.laweekly.com/1999-06-17/news/stuck-in-translation/ . dead .
  17. Book: Latinas in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia . 1 . Vicki L. Ruíz . Virginia Sánchez Korrol . . 2006 . 355 & 413 . 978-0-253-34681-0.
  18. Encyclopedia: Development . Encyclopedia of Journalism . . . 1999 . 833 . 647893650 . Google Books.
  19. News: Celebrating cultural rebirth: the Alameda makes a comeback with carefully crafted 'dos culturas' exhibit . Angela Covo . . February 20, 2011 . November 20, 2020 . March 2, 2015 . https://archive.today/20150302153339/http://www.laprensasa.com/301_san-antonio/918536_alameda-makes-a-comeback-with-dos-culturas-exhibit-that-celebrates-mexico-and-san-antonio.html . bot: unknown .
  20. In some quarters, the phrase Mexican-American was misleading and sometimes pejorative. People born in America, regardless of ancestry, have a constitutional right to U.S. citizenship. The term Mexican-American means different things to different people. But to many, it refers to naturalized American citizens who were born in Mexico. The term Chicano, which had a negative connotation before the Chicano Movement in the 1960s, gained popularity. And the phrase Latin-American or Latino or Hispanic became more pervasive as a way to identify Spanish-speaking people of all races and nationalities, including Mexican-Americans who prefer a broader ethnic and cultural identity linking pre-Mexican ancestry.

    The heritage of 20th century Mexican-Americans may be much forgotten by people now living in their communities, but the history has been broadly chronicled by writers, publishers, and scholars. Moreover, Chicano Studies and programs under other names at leading universities have institutionalized Mexican-American history as an important standalone inter- discipline.

  21. Window on the Collections: La Prensa and the Mexican Workers of Bethlehem Steel . Melissa M. Mandell . Pennsylvania Legacies . . 6 . 2 . November 2006 . 28–29. 5544010997 . 1544-6360 . Jstor . subscription.
  22. Book: Horizons of the Sacred: Mexican Traditions in U.S. Catholicism . Timothy M. Matovina . Gary L. Riebe-Estrella . . 2002 . 35 . 49519049 . Google Books.
    - Book: El México de Afuera . Federico Allen Hinojosa . Artes Graficas . San Antonio . 1940 . 7638099.
    - Class Consciousness and Ideology – The Mexican Community of San Antonio, Texas: 1930–1940. Richard A. Garci . Aztlán . . 9 . 1 & 2 . 1978 . 23–6 . 0005-2604.
  23. News: Mexico Bars Papers . . . November 6, 1934 . 1 .
  24. Recovering and Re-Constructing Early Twentieth-Century Hispanic Immigrant Print Culture in the US . Nicolás C. Kanellos . . . 19. 2 . Summer 2007 . 438–455 . February 20, 2015 . Jstor. subscription.
  25. Many of the publishing houses and weekly newspapers did not survive from their publishing efforts alone; like Whitt Publishing and Artes Gráficas, they also had an extensive job printing businesses. (Kanellos, 2007; Kanellos 2011)

  26. Book: Culture in the American Southwest: The Earth, the Sky, the People . Keith L. Bryant. . 2001 . 162 . 44174328 . Google Books.
  27. Book: Silvestre Revueltas. Blanca Espinosa Barco. . February 20, 2015. es.
    - Book: Poesía y Prosa of José Gorostiza . . Jaime Labastida. Mexico City. Siglo XXI Editores. 2007. 228–231. es. 233690019.
    - Lupe Medina (née Guadalupe Medina; 1892–1953) was married to the Mexican architect and music lover Ricardo Ortega (1901–1973). She taught at the Conservatorio Nacional de Música in Mexico City and was an exponent of Mexican contemporary classical music. Mexican composer Carlos Jiménez Mabarak (1916–1994) wrote El Retrato de Lupe – Elegía ("Portrait of Lupe") for violin and piano and for violin and orchestra, as a memorial to her. The work was dedicated to and performed by violinist Henryk Szeryng during a European tour. Poet Carlos Pellicer (1899–1977) also dedicated a poem to her — Grupos de Palomas.

    * Web site: El Retrato de Lupe, Luis Samuel Saloma Alcalá, violin; Duane Cochran, piano, Urtext Digital Classics . 2006. 271073369 . YouTube. * Una Entrevista Con Carlos Jiménez Mabarak . Garciela Moreno . 'Revista de la Universidad de México . . March 7, 1954. 27 . 0041-8471. * Book: Twentieth-Century Latin American Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology . Stephen J. Tapscott . . 1996 . 155 . 33104100 . Google Books.
  28. Web site: Francisco Agea Hermosa (biography) . February 2014 . Grandes Músicos Mexicanos. February 20, 2015.
  29. Revueltas in San Antonio and Mobile . Robert LeRoy Parker . Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana . . 23 . 1 . Spring–Summer 2002 . 114–130 . February 20, 2015 . 1536-0199. Jstor. subscription.

    Parker, retired from the University of Miami, is, among other things, a scholar on the life and works of Carlos Chávez
    - News: Una gran nota de arte ofrecieron tres artistas mexicanos. A great note of art offered by three Mexican artists. La Prensa. April 9, 1926. 5. es.

  30. Book: 9. Porfirista Femininity in Exile: Women's Contributions to San Antonio's La Prensa, 1913–1929 . Nancy A. Aguirre, PhD. Women of the Right: Comparisons and Interplay Across Borders. . Sandra McGee Deutsch . . 2012. 147–162. 745766007. Google Books.
  31. Web site: The Roots of Tejano and Conjunto Music, liner notes and photos from Arhoolie Records, Ideal/Arhoolie CD-341 (1991) . UT Library Online . . March 2, 2015 . 593747887 . July 27, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130727040204/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/raices.html . dead .
  32. Encyclopedia: González, Leonides . Nora E. Ríos McMillan . Handbook of Texas Online. June 15, 2010 . February 26, 2015.
  33. News: Ex-Angeloan Heads La Prensa. . December 4, 1959. 2-A.
  34. News: Pilot Film of 'Gringo' to be Shown . Corpus Christi Caller-Times. November 29, 1959.
  35. News: Seguin Plant To Print San Antonio La Prensa. . July 29, 1960. 3A.
  36. News Notes and Personals . Land and Freedom. 37 . 4 . July–August 1937 . 134 . 9777687.
    - Encyclopedia: Brinsmade, Robert Bruce. Who's Who on the Pacific Coast. Franklin Harper . Los Angeles. Harper Publishing Company . 1913. 70 . 7360872.
  37. Exporting Rhetoric, Importing Oil: United States Relations With Venezuela . Bethany Aram . World Affairs. 154 . 3 . Winter 1992 . 94–106.
  38. News: Miss Subways of '41, Meet Miss Subways of '71 . . . December 8, 1971.
  39. News: New Face is Added to Marital Blitz. The Philadelphia Inquirer. May 21, 1961.
  40. [Sivensa|Siderúrgica Venezolana, S.A.]
  41. Book: Immigrant Literature: El Sueño del Retorno . Nicolás C. Kanellos . . 201 . 41 . 744363021 . Google Books.
  42. Web site: "Próspero: A Study Of Success From The Mexican Middle Class In San Antonio, Texas" (dissertation). Sarita Molinar Bertinato. . August 2012 . 817970128.
    - Book: Recovering the U. S. Hispanic Literary Heritage . 2 . . Chuck Tatum . . 1996 . 266 . 794492118. Google Books.
  43. Web site: Hermanos de Raza: Alonso S. Perales and the Creation of the LULAC Spirit (masters thesis) . Brandon H. Mila . . 2013 . 898348718.
  44. News: Spanish-Language Press Had a Vital Role in San Antonio History. Manuel Ruiz Ibañez . . June 18, 1972 . 5-H.
  45. News: Times' Starlight Was Bright Time . https://archive.today/20150217204037/http://madmax.lmtonline.com/textarchives/032606/l1.htm . February 17, 2015 . Odie Arambula . . . March 26, 2006.
  46. News: Americo Paredes, a Pioneer In Chicano Studies, Dies at 83. Joe Holley . The New York Times. May 7, 1999. subscription.
  47. Book: Américo Paredes. Manuel F. Medrano . . 2010 . 27 . 671655045 . Google Books.
  48. "Statement of Ownership, Management, Circulation, etc.", La Prensa (published pursuant to the Acts of August 24, 1912, and March 3, 1933)

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