The grammar of the Klingon language was created by Marc Okrand for the Star Trek franchise. He first described it in his book The Klingon Dictionary. It is a nominative–accusative, primarily suffixing agglutinative language, and has an object–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.
Klingon follows an object–verb–subject word order.[1] Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentence[2] and prepositional phrases go before the object.[3]
Sentences can be treated as objects, and the word '''ʼeʼ''' is placed after the sentence. '''ʼeʼ''' is treated as the object of the next sentence.[4] The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before the '''ʼeʼ'''[5]
Klingon has three noun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns.[6] Klingon has no articles, so the word '''raS''' table can mean a table or the table. The difference between the two is inferred from context.
There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type.[7] The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix.[8] In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.
This type has three suffixes:
'''-ʼaʼ''','''-Hom''',-oy.This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.
'''-puʼ''' is for beings capable of using language.'''-Duʼ''' is for body parts,'''-mey''' is used for all other nouns.'''-mey''' is used for nouns that would normally take '''-puʼ''' or '''-Duʼ''', it carries the connotation of being all over the place.A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural,[10] or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.[11]
'''Duy<u>puʼ</u> <u>chaH</u>''' or '''Duy <u>chaH</u>'''
'''raS<u>mey</u> <u>DI</u>ghor''' or '''raS <u>DI</u>ghor'''
This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:
'''-qoq''' indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.'''-Hey''' indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.[12]'''-naʼ''' indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.[13]This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.
There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language.
| Possessives | 1st-person singular | 2nd-person singular | 3rd-person singular | 1st-person plural | 2nd-person plural | 3rd-person plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Not capable of using language | -wIj | -lIj | -Daj | -maj | -raj | -chaj |
| Capable of using language | -wIʼ | -lIʼ | -maʼ | -raʼ |
There are also two determiner suffixes:[14]
'''-vam''' this indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed'''-vetlh''' that indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussedExamples:
This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.
'''-Daq''' indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun.[15] With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.'''-voʼ''' indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.'''-moʼ''' indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.'''-vaD''' indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.'''-ʼeʼ''' indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.[16]Klingon verbs mark for aspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, called rovers, are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.[17]
Unlike English, there is no infinitive.[18] The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.
Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object.
| Object | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No object | 1st person singular | 2nd person singular | 3rd person singular | 1st person plural | 2nd person plural | 3rd person plural | ||
| Subject | 1st person singular | jI- | qa- | vI- | Sa- | vI- | ||
| 2nd person singular | bI- | cho- | Da- | ju- | Da- | |||
| 3rd person singular | Ø- | mu- | Du- | Ø- | nu- | lI- | Ø- | |
| 1st person plural | ma- | pI- | wI- | re- | DI- | |||
| 2nd person plural | Su- | tu- | bo- | che- | bo- | |||
| 3rd person plural | Ø- | mu- | nI- | lu- | nu- | lI- | Ø- | |
| unspecified* | Ø- | vI- | Da- | Ø- | wI- | bo- | lu- | |
* Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix '''-luʼ'''
| Legend | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|
| Not represented | ||
| Ø- | Null prefix |
| Object | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No object | 1st person singular | 3rd person singular | 1st person plural | 3rd person plural | ||
| Subject | 2nd person singular | yI- | HI- | yI- | gho- | tI- |
| 2nd person plural | pe- | |||||
Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly.[19] In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.[20]
Examples:
This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.
'''-ʼegh''' indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.[21]'''-chuq''' indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other.[22] Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.
'''-nIS''' indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.'''-qang''' indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.'''-rup''' indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.'''-beH''' indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action. '''-beH''' is used with devices, whereas '''-rup''' is used with beings.'''-vIp''' indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.[23]This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.
'''-choH''' indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:'''-qaʼ''' indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.There is only one suffix in this category, the causative suffix '''-moH'''. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verb clean ('''SayʼmoH''') is derived from the verb be clean ('''Sayʼ''').[24]
Intransitive verb:
Causative form:
Transitive verb:
Causative form:
There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix '''-luʼ''' indicates an undefined subject. The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second person subject with third person singular object are used to indicate first or second person object. The suffix indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.[24]
Examples:
'''-luʼ''' without prefix:'''much bej'''
He/she watches the presentation
'''-luʼ''' with prefix:'''vItlhaʼ'''
I chase it
'''-laH''':This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.
'''-chuʼ''' indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.'''-bej''' indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.'''-lawʼ''' indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.[25]'''-baʼ''' indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.[26]This type indicates the verb's aspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.
Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect, '''-puʼ''' or '''-taʼ''') can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with "perfectly done".)
'''-puʼ''' indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.'''-taʼ''' also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.[27]'''-taH''' indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.'''-lIʼ''' indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.[28]The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb form '''rIntaH''' after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility.
'''ghorluʼ rIntaH''' It has been broken (and it cannot be mended)
There is only one suffix in this group, the honorific suffix '''-neS'''. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.[29]
'''-neS''':
Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.
Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.
'''-wIʼ''' is used to form words for persons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the form X-er can mean either "person who does X" (listener, baker) or "thing that does X" (screwdriver, sprinkler).'''-ghach''' is used as a nominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.[30] [31]These two suffixes inflect the verb in specific grammatical moods.
'''-ʼaʼ''' is used to form yes–no questions.'''-jaj''' is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.The following seven suffixes are used to form subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause may go after or before the clause it modifies.[32]
Time
'''-paʼ''' indicates that the event described in the main clause occurs chronologically before the event of this clause.'''jItlheDpaʼ, HIboQ''' Before I depart, assist me
('''jItlheD''' I depart, '''HIboQ''' assist me)
'''-vIS''' indicates that the main clause is occurring at the same time as this clause. It is always used in conjunction with the type-7 suffix continuous suffix '''-taH'''.'''lumtaHvIS, pagh taʼ''' He accomplishes nothing while he procrastinates
('''lum''' procrastinate, '''taʼ''' accomplish, '''pagh''' nothing)
'''-DIʼ''' indicates that the event of the main clause occurs immediately after the event of this clause is completed.'''jImej chocholDIʼ''' As soon as you approach me, I leave
('''jImej''' I leave, '''chochol''' you approach me)
Cause and effect
'''-chugh''' is used to form conditionals.'''DaSamlaHchugh, DaSuqlaH''' If you can find it, you can take it
('''DaSamlaH''' you can find it, '''DaSuqlaH''' you can acquire (take) it)
'''-moʼ''' indicates the main clause is occurring because of this clause.'''bIʼIlmoʼ, qavoq''' Because you are sincere, I trust you
('''bIʼIl''' you are sincere, '''qavoq''' I trust you)
(Relative and purpose clauses)
'''-bogh''' is used in relative clauses. Their usage is covered in the relative clauses section.'''-meH''' is used in purpose clauses. Their usage is covered in the purpose clauses section.This type of suffix is known as a '''lengwIʼ''' in Klingon, which is translated as rover ('''leng''' wander + '''wIʼ'''). There are four rovers. These suffixes have no defined position, and can go after the verb stem or after any suffix – even another rover – except after a type-9 suffix or where the result would be meaningless. They modify whatever directly precedes them.
'''-beʼ''' negates what precedes it but in the imperative mood -Qoʼ is used.[33]'''-Qoʼ''' negates what precedes it in the imperative mood. In the indicative mood it indicates refusal by the subject. It can only be used between verb suffixes of Type 8 and Type 9.[34]'''-quʼ''' emphasises what precedes it.[35]'''-Haʼ''' reverses what precedes it; that is, it indicates that the opposite of what precedes it is being done, or that the action is being undone. If used on a verb that cannot be undone and has no meaningful opposite, it means to perform the action wrongly, not in the proper way, somewhat like the English prefix mis- in misspeak, mistype, misspell, etc. Unlike the other rovers, it can be placed only just after the stem; its classification in the rover category is attributed to the insistence of fictional Klingon grammarians.[36]The position of the rover suffixes affects the meaning of the word. Contrast
'''luSoplaH''' They are able to eat it
'''luSoplaH<u>beʼ</u>''' They are not able to eat it
'''luSop<u>beʼ</u>laH''' They are able to not eat it
(In context, possibly equivalent to They can refuse to eat it)
'''luSop<u>beʼ</u>laH<u>beʼ</u>''' They are not able to not eat it
(In context, possibly equivalent to They cannot refuse to eat it)
Klingon has no verb that corresponds to the verb to be; the concept is expressed using a different grammatical construction. Pronouns can be used as verbs that act as the pronoun plus the verb to be. The pronoun can take verb suffixes, which then modify the pronoun like any other verb. A third-person subject that is not a pronoun must go after the pronoun-verb and carry the type-5 noun suffix '''-ʼeʼ'''[37]
| Pronouns[38] | 1st-person singular | 2nd-person singular | 3rd-person singular | 1st-person plural | 2nd-person plural | 3rd-person plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Capable of using language | jIH | SoH | ghaH | maH | tlhIH | chaH |
| Not capable of using language | ʼoH | bIH |
Examples:
'''qonwI' tlhIH''' You are composers'''ghojwIʼ ghaH HaDwIʼʼeʼ''' A studier is a learnerKlingon does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives, in which case they follow the noun they modify.Contrast ('''wep''' coat, and '''yIQ''' be wet)
'''wep yIQ'''
the wet coatwith
'''yIQ wep.'''
The coat is wet.
In this construction, the only verbal suffixes allowed are rover suffixes such as '''-quʼ''' and '''-Haʼ'''.[39] Type-5 noun suffixes that would normally be attached to the noun are instead attached to the adjectival verb:[40]
'''paʼDaq'''
'''paʼ tInDaq'''
'''tIn''' big)Adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, but time adverbs go before other adverbs.[41]
Adverbs can take the rover suffix '''-Haʼ''' to denote the opposite adverbial.[42]
'''Doʼ'''
'''DoʼHaʼ'''
Klingon has seven conjunctions, and they are different for nouns and for sentences. The noun conjunctions are '''je''' for a logical conjunction, '''joq''' for a logical disjunction and '''ghap''' for an exclusive disjunction. Noun conjunctions go after the nouns they connect. Sentence conjunctions are '''ʼej''' for a logical conjunction, '''qoj''' for a logical disjunction and '''pagh''' for an exclusive disjunction. '''ʼach''' (or '''ʼa''') but is used to contrast sentences.
In a relative clause, the verb has the type-9 verb suffix '''-bogh''' added to it.[43] The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses, but the head noun may optionally get the type-5 suffix '''-ʼeʼ''' added.[44]
Since there is already a type-5 noun suffix marking the head noun, nothing other than the subject or the object can be marked as head noun. Two sentences are formed instead to form the same idea. Relative clauses can have nouns with type 5 suffixes as modifiers, but it can be ambiguous as they can be misinterpreted as being part of the main sentence.
A purpose clause expresses the reason or goal of the action of the main clause. If it is modifying a noun it states the purpose of the noun. A purpose clause always goes before the clause or noun it modifies.[43] This is the cause of some grammatical ambiguity in Klingon, as a '''-meH''' modifying a noun at the beginning of a sentence can be misinterpreted as modifying the entire sentence. This can be resolved in writing with punctuation.
'''-meH''' with sentence:'''-meH''' with nouns:In this section, noun phrases are indicated by the abbreviation NP, and adjectives by A.
Klingon comparatives mainly rely on adjectives like '''lawʼ''' (to be many), '''puS''' (to be few), '''rap''' (to be the same), and '''rur''' (to resemble, to be like) to contrast the nouns. However, many (but not all) of the comparatives have unusual word orders that don't parse as regular Klingon sentences.
'''lawʼ''' NP2 A '''puS'''. '''lawʼ Hoch''' A '''puS''' is used to form superlatives, i.e. '''Hoch''' = all, everyone, everything)'''Hoch''' A '''lawʼ''' NP1 A '''puS''' is used to indicate '''rur''' is used to form similes: A yes–no question in Klingon can be formed by adding the suffix to the regular form. The word for yes is '''HISlaH''' or '''HIjaʼ''' and the word for no is '''ghobeʼ'''. Interrogative pronouns go where the answer would normally go, and don't reorder the sentence. Interrogative adverbs go at the beginning of the sentence.[45]
Klingon uses a base-10 system to count numbers. To form a multiple of 10, 100, 1 000, 1 000 000, the word for the multiple of ten is suffixed to the digit. For example, '''chorghmaH''' eighty is a combination of the word '''chorgh''' eight and the number forming suffix ten.
Larger powers go before smaller powers: '''chorghmaH Soch''' is eight-ten seven. The number suffix is used to form ordinal numbers, and the number suffix indicates how many times an action has been repeated: '''loSDIch''' fourth, '''waʼmaH chaʼlogh''' twelve times.[46]
| 10 | -maH | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 100 | -vatlh | ||
| 1 000 | -SaD | -SanID | |
| 10 000 | -netlh | ||
| 100 000 | -bIp | ||
| 1 000 000 | -ʼuyʼ | ||
| 0 | pagh | 5 | vagh | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | waʼ | 6 | jav | |
| 2 | chaʼ | 7 | Soch | |
| 3 | wej | 8 | chorgh | |
| 4 | loS | 9 | Hut |
'''neH''' only, merely from p.56 and '''jayʼ''' (swear word) from p.177.'''neH''' want'''-ghach'''. HolQeD . 3 . 3 . 10–13 . Klingon Language Institute . Flourtown, Pennsylvania.'''-quʼ''', but later canon examples expand the set, for example '''ngaDHaʼ''' in Okrand 1997, p.150'''-bogh''' and more . HolQeD . 4 . 2 . 5–6 . Klingon Language Institute . Flourtown, Pennsylvania.