The kings of Axum ruled an important trading state in the area which is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, from 400 BC to 960 AD.
Various regnal lists of Axumite monarchs have survived to the present day via manuscripts or oral tradition. However, the lists often contradict each other and many lists contain incomplete or scattered information. The lists were likely compiled over a long period at several different monasteries. Some historians cover consider these lists to be untrustworthy. There are a number of legendary figures at the beginning of some lists whose historicity is difficult to confirm or trace. Axumite kings may have used multiple names similar to the later Emperors of the Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974), resulting in different names for the same ruler on different lists.
Aksumite coins have proven useful for constructing a chronology of Axumite kings.[1] Around 98 percent of the city of Axum has not yet been excavated. [2] At least 18 kings have been identified with coinage covering the period from the late third century to the early seventh century.
The following table contains names from both traditional regnal lists and names that are archeologically verified. German August Dillmann grouped the regnal lists into three types and the order of names will be based on his lists. The spelling of certian names are taken from lists recorded by E. A. Wallis Budge. The overall order of monarchs is partially based on the 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia, which is the only official Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to combine names from different lists into a longer chronological order.
| Portrait | Name | Dates | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Legendary period – Monarchs who reigned before Menelik I | ||||
| Arwe "the serpent" | 18th century BC (traditional) | Mythical serpent who reigned for 400 years. Also known as Wainaba.[3] | ||
| Angabo | 14th century BC (traditional) | Killed the evil serpent king Arwe. Ruled for 200 years. | ||
| [Za] Gedur I | 12th century BC (traditional) | Ruled for 100 years. Also known as Zagdur. | ||
| Sebado | 11th century BC (traditional) | Ruled for 50 years. | ||
| Kawnasya | 10th century BC (traditional) | Ruled for 1 year. | ||
| [Za] Makeda | 10th century BC (traditional) | Daughter of Kawnasya. Ruled for 50 years. In Ethiopian tradition, she is identified with the Biblical Queen of Sheba. Also known as Azeb. | ||
| Monarchs who reigned before the Nativity | ||||
| Ibn al-Hakim (Menelik I) | 10th century BC (traditional) | Son of Makeda and Solomon in Ethiopian tradition. No. 1 on Dillmann's lists A and B. Reigned for 24, 25 or 29 years. | ||
| [Za] Handadyu I | No. 2 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 or 8 years. | |||
| Tomai | No. 2 on Dillmann's list B. Reigned for 15 years. Son of Menelik I. Sometimes known as Abd-Rakid. | |||
| [Za] Aweda | No. 3 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 11 years. Also known as Aweda-Amat. | |||
| [Za] Gedur II | No. 3 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Aksumay | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Awseyo | No. 4 on Dillmann's list A and no. 5 on Dillmann's list B. Reigned for 3 years. | |||
| [Za] Sawe / Tahawasya | No. 5 on Dillmann's list A and no. 6 on list B. Reigned for 31 or 34 years. | |||
| Abralyus | No. 7 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Warada Dahay | No. 8 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Handadyu II | No. 9 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Warada Nagash | No. 10 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Awseya | No. 11 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Gasyo | No. 6 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for half a day. | |||
| [Za] Mawat | No. 7 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for either 8 years and 1 month, 8 years and 4 months, or 20 years and 1 month. Confusion of reign length may have resulted from similarity between the Ge'ez numbers for 8 (፰) and 20 (፳) and the numbers for 1 (፩) and 4 (፬). | |||
| Elalyon | No. 12 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Toma Seyon | No. 13 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Bahas / Basyo | No. 8 on Dillmann's list A and no. 14 on list B. Reigned for 9 years. Possibly the same king as Gasyo in list A. | |||
| Awtet I | No. 15 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Zaware Nebrat | No. 16 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Safay | No. 17 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Ramhay | c. 330s–320s BC (traditional) | No. 18 on Dillmann's list B. According to an unpublished manuscript from Aksum, this king was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and asked for Greek technicians and engineers to build palaces, monuments and stelae, one of which was destroyed centuries later by Gudit. | ||
| Hande | No. 19 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Kawida | No. 9 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| [Za] Kanaz | No. 10 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 10 years. | |||
| [Za] Hadena | No. 11 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 9 years. A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Za] Wazeha | No. 12 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Za] Hadir | No. 13 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| [Za] Kalas | No. 14 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 6 or 7 years. Confusion may have arisen from the similarity of the Ge'ez numbers for 6 (፮) and 7 (፯). | |||
| [Za] Satyo | No. 15 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 16 or 17 years. | |||
| [Za] Filya / Safelya | No. 16 on Dillmann's list A and no. 20 on list B. Reigned for 26 or 27 years. | |||
| [Za] Aglebu / Aglebul | No. 17 on Dillmann's list A and no. 21 on list B. Reigned for 3 years. | |||
| [Za] Awsena | No. 18 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| Bawawel | No. 22 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Birwas / Bawaris | No. 19 on Dillmann's list A and no. 23 on list B. Reigned for 29 years. | |||
| [Za] Mahasi | No. 20 on Dillmann's list A and no. 24 on list B. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| Nalke | No. 25 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za Besi] Bazen | 8 BC–8 or 9 AD (E.C.) (traditional) | No. 21 on Dillmann's list A and no. 26 on list B. Reigned for 16 or 17 years. Axumite regnal lists consistently date this king's reign to 8 years before the birth of Jesus. A tomb has been identified in local tradition as belong to Bazen.[4] | ||
| Monarchs who reigned after the Nativity | ||||
| [Za] Sartu | No. 1 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 26 or 27 years. | |||
| Senfa Asgad | No. 1 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Senfa Arad | No. 1 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] L'as | No. 2 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 10 years. | |||
| Bahr Asagad | No. 2 on both Dillmann's list B and list C. | |||
| [Za] Masenh | No. 3 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 7 years. | |||
| Germa Sor | No. 3 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Za] Setwa | No. 4 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 9 years. | |||
| Germa Asfare I | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 3 on list C. | |||
| [Za] Adgala | No. 5 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 10 years and 6 or 7 months. | |||
| [Za] Agba | No. 6 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 6 months. | |||
| Serada | No. 4 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| [Za] Malis or Malik | No. 7 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 4, 6 or 7 years. | |||
| Kulu Seyon | No. 5 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| [Za] Hakli | No. 8 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 13 years. | |||
| Zoskales | 1st century | The earliest known Axumite king from outside the traditional regnal lists. Recorded in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.[5] Could be the king Za Hakli or a local ruler in Adulis. The identification with Hakli has been disputed by some historians because the earliest of the regnal lists post date the Periplus by well over a thousand years[6] | ||
| Sarguai | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 6 on list C. | |||
| [Za] Demahe | No. 9 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 10 years. | |||
| Zaray | No. 5 on Dillmann's list B and no. 7 on list C. | |||
| [Za] Awtet II | No. 10 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| Bagamai | No. 8 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| [Za] El–Aweda | No. 11 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 30 years. | |||
| Djan Asagad | No. 9 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Saba Asgad | No. 6 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Zegen and Rema (Joint rule) | No. 12 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 4 or 8 years. | |||
| Seyon Hegez | No. 10 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Seyon Geza | No. 7 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Moal Genha | No. 11 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| [Za] Gafale | No. 13 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Za] Besi Sark | No. 14 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 4 years. | |||
| Agdur | No. 8 on Dillmann's list B and no. 13 on list C. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Asguagua | No. 15 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 76 or 77 years. | |||
| GDRT (vocalized by historians as Gadarat) | Early 3rd century | Inscriptions of GDR are the oldest surviving royal inscriptions in the Ge'ez alphabet. Inscriptions mention his son BYGT (vocalized as "Beygat" or "Beyga"). Possibly the king who wrote the Monumentum Adulitanum.[7] His name could have inspired the names Gedur and Zagdur that appear on traditional lists. | ||
| [Za] Ela–Herka | No. 16 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 21 years. | |||
| [Za] Besi Saweza | No. 17 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Za] Wakana | No. 18 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 or 2 days. A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Za] Hadus | No. 19 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 4 months. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Sagal | No. 20 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 or 3 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Asfeha I | No. 21 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 14 years. | |||
| ʽDBH (vocalized by historians as `Azaba or `Adhebah) | First half of the 3rd century | Known through South Arabian inscriptions. Inscriptions mention his son GRMT (vocalized as "Girma"). | ||
| [Za] Ela–Segab | No. 22 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 23 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Samara | No. 23 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 3 years. | |||
| Sembrouthes | c. 250 | Known from a single inscription in Ancient Greek that was found at Dekemhare, which is dated to his 24th regnal year. First known ruler of Ethiopia to use the title "King of Kings". May have erected the Monumentum Adulitanum.[8] May be the same king as Ela–Samara, but regnal lists only record 3 years of rule for him. | ||
| DTWNS (vocalized by historians as Datawnas) | Second half of the 3rd century | Mentioned with his son ZQRNS (vocalized as "Zaqarnas") in an inscription from al-Mis'al in Yemen. | ||
| [Za] Ela–Aiba | No. 24 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 16 or 17 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Eskendi | No. 25 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 37 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Saham I | No. 26 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 9 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–San | No. 27 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 13 years. | |||
| [Za] Ela–Ayga | No. 28 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 18 years. | |||
| Endubis | c. 295–310 | The oldest known Axumite coins date to this king's reign. | ||
| Aphilas | c. 310–early 320s | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| Ousanas I [Za] Ela–Ameda I Saifa Ared | early 320s–mid 340s | Stuart Munro-Hay believed it is "very likely" that Ousanas is the king to whom Aedesius and Frumentius were brought. This king is known as Ella Amida in Ethiopian tradition. No. 29 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 30 years and 8 months according to traditional lists. Known as Tazer in some sources and lists. Saifa Ared is the throne name of Tazer, and this name is no. 9 on Dillmann's list B and no. 12 on list C. Tazer/Seifa Ared is the father of Abreha and Atsbeha in Ethiopian tradition.[9] | ||
| Wazeba | late 330s | Only known from coins minted during his reign, which were the first to be engraved in Ge'ez. Possibly a usurper during the reign of Ousanas. | ||
| [Za] Ela–Ahyawa Sofya (Regent) | mid 340s | Regent during the minority of her son Ezana. According to an unpublished history of kings from Axum, this ruler was the wife of Ella Amida (Ousanas) and reigned for three years during the minority of her sons Abreha and Atsbeha. The Gedle Abreha and Asbeha from the Church of Abreha wa-Atsbeha names her Sofya, and states she was the wife of king Tazer (Ousanas) and mother of Abreha and Atsbeha. No. 30 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 3 years. Known as Egwala Anbasa in some sources. | ||
| Christian Monarchs | ||||
| [Za] Ela–Abreha and Atsbeha (Joint rule) | Early 4th century | In Ethiopian tradition, these brothers were the first to convert to Christianity. Likely based on Ezana and Saizana.[10] No. 31 on Dillmann's list A, no. 10 on list B and no. 14 on list C. Reigned for 27 years and 6 months. | ||
| [Ela] Abreha I (Sole rule) | No. 1 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 12 years. | |||
| Ezana | mid 340s–380 | First Christian king of Axum. Converted by Frumentius. His name does not appear on traditional regnal lists. | ||
| [Ela] Atsbeha I (Sole rule) | No. 1 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| [Ela] Asfeha II | No. 2 on Dillmann's list A and no. 1 on list C. Reigned for 6 or 7 years. | |||
| [Ela] Sahel I | No. 3 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 14 years. | |||
| Ouazebas | late 4th century | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| [Ela] Adhana I | No. 4 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 14 years. A female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Ela] Rete | No. 5 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Ela] Asfeha III | No. 6 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Ela] Atsbeha II | No. 7 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 5 years. | |||
| Eon/Noe | first third of 5th century | Primarily known from coins minted during his reign. Name written as Eon Bisi Anaaph on his coins. His coins were the first to use the title of "King of the land of the Abyssinians" instead of "King of the Axumites". Possibly the "Huina" from the Book of the Himyarites. | ||
| MHDYS (vocalized as Mehadeyis) | c. 430 | Primarily known from coins minted during his reign. May have been mentioned in Dionysiaca by Nonnus.[11] | ||
| [Ela] Ameda II | No. 8 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 16 years. | |||
| [Ela] Abreha II | No. 9 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 6 months. | |||
| [Ela] Sahel II | No. 10 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 months. | |||
| [Ela] Gabaz I | No. 11 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| [Ela] Sahel III | No. 12 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 1 year. | |||
| [Ela] Atzbah | No. 13 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 3 years. | |||
| Ebana | middle third of 5th century | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| [Ela] Abreha III and [Ela] Adhana II (Joint rule) | No. 14 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 16 years. Adhana II was a female monarch according to the 1922 regnal list. | |||
| [Ela] Saham II | No. 15 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 28 years. | |||
| Nezool / Nezana | later 5th century | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| [Ela] Ameda III | No. 16 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 12 years. | |||
| [Ela] Sahel IV | No. 17 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| [Ela] Sebah | No. 18 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 2 years. | |||
| [Ela] Saham III | No. 19 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 15 years. | |||
| [Ela] Gabaz II | No. 20 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 21 years. | |||
| Agabe and Lewi (Joint rule) | No. 21 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 4 years. | |||
| Arfed | No. 2 on both Dillmann's lists B and C. Brother of and co-ruler with Amsi according to list C. | |||
| Amsi | No. 3 on both Dillmann's lists B and C. Brother of and co-ruler with Arfed according to list C. | |||
| Arad | No. 4 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Saladoba | No. 4 on Dillmann's list B and no. 5 on list C. | |||
| [Ela] Ameda IV Alamida | late 530s–550s | The Nine Saints came to Ethiopia during his reign. No. 22 on Dillmann's list A, no. 5 on list B and no. 6 on list C. Reigned for 11 years. | ||
| Yaqob I and Dawit (Joint rule) | No. 23 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 3 years. | |||
| Armah I | No. 24 on Dillmann's list A and no. 13 on list C. Reigned for 14 years and 7 months. | |||
| Ousas / Ousanas II Zitana / Tazena | early 6th century | No. 25 on Dillmann's list A, no. 6 on list B and no. 7 on list C. Reigned for 2 years. | ||
| Yaqob II | No. 26 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 9 years. | |||
| Kaleb Constantinos I | 510s–late 530s | Some of his coins record the filiation son of Thezana. No. 27 on Dillmann's list A, no. 7 on list B and no. 8 on list C. Reigned for 28 years. | ||
| Beta Israel | c. 550[12] or 570s | Son of Kaleb. No. 28 on Dillmann's list A. Reigned for 8 months according to the traditional lists. | ||
| Gabra Masqal | 534–548 | Son of Kaleb. The composer Yared lived during this king's reign. No. 29 on Dillmann's list A, no. 8 on list B and no. 9 on list C. Reigned for 14 years. | ||
| Constantinos II | Son of Gabra Masqal. No. 9 on Dillmann's list B and no. 10 on list C. | |||
| Wazena | 550s and 560s | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| WʽZB (vocalized as Waʽzeb) | 6th century | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| Wasan Sagad | No. 10 on Dillmann's list B. Son of Gabra Masqal according to one list. Theorised by E. A. Wallis Budge to be the same person as Bazgar. | |||
| Bazgar | No. 11 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Asfeha IV | No. 12 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Djan Asfeh | No. 14 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Djan Asgad | No. 15 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Saifu | c. 577 | A possible Axumite king mentioned in a Chinese biography of the prophet Muhammad, as the grandfather of the king who ruled during the Muslime Migration to Abyssinia. Stuart Munro-Hay thought it was plausible Saifu was a historical Axumite king. Wolfgang Hahn instead believes Saifu was Saif ibn Dhi Yazan and had no connection at all with the Axumite monarchy.[13] | ||
| Fere Sanai | No. 11 on Dillmann's list B and no. 16 on list C. | |||
| Gersem | c. 580 | Only known from coins minted during his reign. May be the same king as Germa Asfare. | ||
| Ioel / Joel | 590s–after 600 or c. 600 | Only known from coins minted during his reign. | ||
| Hataz / Hethasas | c. 590 or c. 620 | Only known from coins minted during his reign. Known as Iathlia on some coins. | ||
| Armah | late 6th century/early 7th century | Primarily known from coins minted during his reign. Two kings named Armah appear on traditional regnal lists, but their chronological placement is at odds with numistic evidence. | ||
| Aderaz | No. 12 on Dillmann's list B and no. 17 on list C. | |||
| Najashi | 614–630[14] | Reigned at the time of the Muslim Migration to Abyssinia in 613 or 615. Name likely based on the title Negus. | ||
| Akala Udem | No. 13 on Dillmann's list B and no. 23 on list C. | |||
| Germa Asfare II | No. 14 on Dillmann's list B and no. 24 on list C. | |||
| Zergaz | No. 15 on Dillmann's list B and no. 25 on list C. | |||
| Degna Mikael | No. 16 on Dillmann's list B and no. 26 on list C. | |||
| Bahr Ikla | No. 17 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Gum | No. 18 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Asguamgum | No. 19 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Letem | No. 20 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Talatem | No. 21 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Oda Gosh / Badagaz | No. 22 on Dillmann's list B and no. 27 on list C. | |||
| Ayzur | No. 23 on Dillmann's list B and no. 18 on list C. Reigned for half a day. | |||
| Dedem | No. 24 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Udedem | No. 25 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Wedem Asfare | c. 792–822 | No. 26 on Dillmann's list B. Lived for 150 years according to the traditional lists. | ||
| Armah II | No. 27 on Dillmann's list B and no. 28 on list C. Last ruler before the Zagwe dynasty according to list C. | |||
| Degna Djan | No. 28 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Geda Djan | No. 29 on Dillmann's list B. | |||
| Anabasa Udem | No. 30 on Dillmann's list B and no. 22 on list C. | |||
| Dil Na'od | 10th century | Most sources consider this king to be last to rule the Axumite kingdom. He was the younger of son of Degna Djan and brother of Anbasa Wedem. Had a short reign of around 10 years. One tradition recorded by James Bruce states he was an infant when Gudit killed the princes imprisoned at Debre Damo and had to be taken out of the kingdom by nobles to save his life. No. 31 on Dillmann's list B and no. 19 on list C. Last ruler before the Zagwe dynasty according to list B. | ||
| Madai | No. 20 on Dillmann's list C. | |||
| Gudit / Esato | No. 21 on Dillmann's list C. Ruled after Dil Na'od on list B and after Madai on list C. |