The grammar of the Kashubian language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, and has relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There are no articles. Distinctive features include the different treatment of masculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of numerals and quantifiers.
Kashubian has a rich system of inflectional morphology, akin to that of other Slavic languages, including case, number, gender, tense, aspect, and mood.
Kashubian displays 7 cases inherited from Proto-Slavic. They are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative case, however the vocative is very often replaced by the nominative.
Gender is usually reflected by the ending of a given noun stem. Sounds ending in a soft consonant, -a, and -ô are feminine. Masculine nouns end in a consonant and sometimes -a.
Some nouns are both masculine and feminine depending on the gender of the referent, e.g. Kashubian: kaléka (crippled person).
Kashubian has a singular and a plural with traces of an old dual remaining in some plurals (Kashubian: rãce, oczë, plecë, uszë), and the instrumental plural ending -ama, and the now plural pronoun Kashubian: wa, with the old plural becoming a polite pronoun.
The ending -ama is preferred standardly, and -ami appears dialectally.
| Masculine personal | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | chłop∅, pòeta | chłopi/chłopë, pòecë |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | chłopa, pòetë | chłopów, pòetów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | chłopù, pòece | chłopóm, pòetóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | chłopa, pòetã | chłopów, pòecë |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | chłopã, pòetą | chłopama/chłopami, pòetama, pòetami |
| Locative (môlnik) | chłopie, pòece | chłopach, pòetach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | chłopie, pòeto | chłopi/chłopë, pòecë |
| Masculine animal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |||
| Hard | Soft | Hard | Soft | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | lës∅ | kóń∅ | lësë | kònie |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | lësa | kònia | lësów | kònii/kòniów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | lësowi | kòniowi/kòniewi/kòniu | lësom | kòniom |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | lësa | kònia | lëse | kònie |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | lësã | kòniã/kòniem | lësama/lësami | kòniama/kòniami |
| Locative (môlnik) | lësu | kòniu | lësach | kòniach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | lësu | kòniu | lëse | kònie |
| Masculine inanimate | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |||
| Hard | Soft | Hard | Soft | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | brzég∅ | kosz∅ | brzedżi | kosze |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | brzega/brzegù | kosza | brzegów | koszi/koszów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | brzegòwi | koszowi | brzegóm | koszóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | brzég∅ | kosz∅ | brzedżi | kosze |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | brzegã | koszã/koszem | brzegama/brzegami | koszama/koszami |
| Locative (môlnik) | brzegù | koszu | brzegach | koszach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | brzegù | koszu | brzedżi | kosze |
Comments about the singular:
Comments about the plural:
| Hard -a declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | gãba, noga | gãbë, nodżi |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | gãbë, nodżi | gãbów, nogów/nóg∅ |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | gãbie, nodze | gãbóm, nogóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | gãbã, nogã | gãbë, nodżi |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | gãbą, nogą | gãbama/gãbami, nogama/nogami |
| Locative (môlnik) | gãbie, nodze | gãbach, nogach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | gãbò, nogò | gãbë, nodżi |
| Soft -a declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | zemia, òwca | zemie, òwce |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | zemi/zemie, òwcë | zemi/zemiów, owiec∅/òwców |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | zemi, òwcë | zemióm, òwcóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | zemiã, òwcã | zemie, òwce |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | zemią, òwcą | zemiama/zemiami, òwcama/òwcami |
| Locative (môlnik) | zemi, òwcë | zemiach, òwcach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | zemia/zemio, òwco | zemie, òwce |
Comments:
| Soft -ô declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | rolô, stëdniô | role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | rolë/roli/rolé/role, stëdni/stëdnié/stëdnie | roli/rolów, stëdni/stëdniów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | roli/rolë/rolé, stëdnié | rolóm, stëdnióm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | rolã, stëdniã | role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | rolą, stëdnią | rolama/rolami, stëdniama/stëdniami |
| Locative (môlnik) | roli/rolë/rolé, stëdnié | rolach, stëdniach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | rolô, stëdniô | role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié |
Comments:
| Latinate feminine -(i/ë)jô (soft) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ô'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''e'''|italic=no |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''é'''/proces(ë)j'''i'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ów'''/ procesyj'''∅'''|italic=no |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''i'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''óm'''|italic=no |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ã'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''e'''|italic=no |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ą'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ama'''/proces(ë)j'''ami'''|italic=no |
| Locative (môlnik) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''i'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ach'''|italic=no |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''ô'''|italic=no | Kashubian: proces(ë)j'''e'''|italic=no |
| Feminine nouns ending in a consonant | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | chëcz∅, noc∅ | chëcze, noce |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | chëczë, nocë | chëczów, noców |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | chëczë, nocë | chëczóm, nocóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | chëcz∅, noc∅ | chëcze, noce |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | chëczą, nocą | chëczama/chëczami, nocama/nocami |
| Locative (môlnik) | chëczë, nocë | chëczach, nocach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | chëczë, nocë | chëcze, noce |
| Hard -o declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | pismò, biczëskò | pisma, biczëska |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | pisma, biczëska | pismów, biczësków |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | pismu, biczëskù | pismóm, biczëskóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | pismò, biczëskò | pisma, biczëska |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | pismã, biczëskã | pismama/pismami, biczëskama/biczëskami |
| Locative (môlnik) | pismie, biczëskù | pismach, biczëskach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | pismò, biczëskò | gãba, biczëska |
| Soft -e declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | serce | serca |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | serca | serców |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | sercu | sercóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | serce | serca |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | sercã | sercama/sercami |
| Locative (môlnik) | sercu | sercach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | serce | serca |
| Soft -é declension | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | kôzanié | kôzania |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | kôzaniô/kôzaniégò/kôzania/kôzaniu/kôzanii | kôzaniów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | kôzaniu/kôzaniémù/kôzaniowi | kôzanióm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | kôzanié | kôzania |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | kôzaniã | kôzaniama/kôzaniami |
| Locative (môlnik) | kôzaniu/kôzanim | kôzaniach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | kôzanié | kôzania |
| Soft -ã declension with an -n- stem | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | semiã | semiona |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | semienia | semión∅/semionów |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | semieniu/semieniowi | semionóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | semiã | semiona |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | semieniã | semionama/semionami |
| Locative (môlnik) | semieniu | semionach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | semiã | semiona |
| Soft -ã declension with a -t- stem | ||
|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative (nazéwôcz ) | celã | celãta |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | celãca | celãt∅/celąt∅ |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | celãcu | celãtóm |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | celã | celãta |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | celãcã | celãtama/celãtami |
| Locative (môlnik) | celãcu | celãtach |
| Vocative (wòłiwôcz) | celã | celãta |
Comments:
Kashubian adjectives agree in number, gender, and case with nouns. The vocative is syncretic with the nominative.
Kashubian retains many short form adjectives, whose base form may be used for all genders, but may also change their ending to agree in gender. They may be used as a predicative or as a possessive adjective or through German borrowings.
Short forms show regular vowel alternations.
The comparative degree is formed by adding -szi or sometimes -ejszi/-észi if the stem ends with two consonants, however -szy can also appear in the same conditions.
The superlative degree is formed nô-.
An analytic comparative may be formed with Kashubian: barżi and an analytic superlative with Kashubian: nôbarżi.
| Hard declension | Singular | Plural | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative, Vocative | personal | młodi | młodô | młodé | młodi | młodé | |
| non-personal | młodé | ||||||
| Genitive | młodégò | młodi | młodégò | młodëch/młodich | |||
| Dative | młodémù | młodi | młodémù | młodim | |||
| Accusative | personal | młodégò | młodą | młodé | młodëch/młodich | młodé | |
| non-personal animate | młodé | ||||||
| inanimate | młodi | ||||||
| Instrumental | młodim | młodą | młodim | młodima/młodëma/młodimi/młodëmi | |||
| Locative | młodim | młodi | młodim | młodëch/młodich | |||
| Soft declension | Singular | Plural | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative, Vocative | personal | snôżi | snôżô | snôżé | snôżi | snôżé | |
| non-personal | snôżé | ||||||
| Genitive | snôżégò | snôżi | snôżégò | snôżich | |||
| Dative | snôżémù | snôżi | snôżémù | snôżim | |||
| Accusative | personal | snôżégò | snôżą | snôżé | snôżich | snôżé | |
| non-personal animate | snôżé | ||||||
| inanimate | snôżi | ||||||
| Instrumental | snôżim | snôżą | snôżim | snôżima/snôżimi | |||
| Locative | snôżim | snôżi | snôżim | snôżich | |||
| Possessive declension (-ów) | Singular | Plural | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative, Vocative | personal | bratów∅ | bratowa | bratowò/bratowé | bratowi | bratowé | |
| non-personal | bratowé | ||||||
| Genitive | bratowégò | bratowi | bratowégò | bratowëch | |||
| Dative | bratowémù | bratowi | bratowémù | bratowim | |||
| Accusative | personal | bratowégò | bratową | bratowò/bratowé | bratowëch | bratowé | |
| non-personal animate | bratowé | ||||||
| inanimate | bratów∅ | ||||||
| Instrumental | bratowim | bratową | bratowim | bratowima | |||
| Locative | bratowim | bratowi | bratowim | bratowëch | |||
| Possessive declension (-in) | Singular | Plural | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative, Vocative | personal | Anin∅ | Anina | Anino/Aniné | Aniny | Aniné | |
| non-personal | Aniné | ||||||
| Genitive | Aninégò | Aniny | Aninégò | Aninëch | |||
| Dative | Aninémù | Aniny | Aninémù | Aninym | |||
| Accusative | personal | Aninégò | Aniną | Anino/Aniné | Aninëch | Aniné | |
| non-personal animate | Aniné | ||||||
| inanimate | Anin∅ | ||||||
| Instrumental | Aninym | Aniną | Aninym | Aninyma | |||
| Locative | Aninym | Aniny | Aninym | Aninëch | |||
Kashubian verbs agree for person, tense, aspect, and have participle forms as well as gerunds.
The formal pronoun Kashubian: Wë has special marking different from forms that agree with Kashubian: wa.
Kashubian has 4 conjugation patterns.
| 1st | jô wiezã | më wiezemë | Wë wiezece |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd | të wiezesz | wa wiezeta | |
| 3rd | òn, òna, òno wieze | òni, òne wiozą | |
| 1st | jô robiã | më robimë | Wë robice |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd | të robisz | wa robita | |
| 3rd | òn, òna, òno robi | òni, òne robią | |
| 1st | jô gróm/jô grajã | më grómë/më grajemë | Wë grôce/Wë grajece |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd | të grôsz/të grajesz | wa grôta/wa grajeta | |
| 3rd | òn, òna, òno grô/òn, òna, òno graje | òni, òne grają/ òni, òne grają | |
| 1st | jô wiém | më wiémë | Wë wiéce |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd | të wiész | wa wiéta | |
| 3rd | òn, òna, òno wié | òni, òne wiedzą | |
| 1st | jô jem | më jesmë | Wë jesce |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2nd | të jes | wa jesta | |
| 3rd | òn, òna, òno je | òni, òne są | |
The second person singular imperative is formed by using the bare verb stem (-∅), -ij(-ëj)/-i(-ë), or -ôj. The second person plural imperative is formed the same way and -ta is added. The first person plural imperative (the so-called hortative is formed the same way and -më is added.
When perfective verbs are inclined according to present endings, a future tense is formed. Imperfective verbs form the future using a future form of Kashubian: bëc and a past form or the infinitive.
The past tense is formed in 3 different ways:
Archaically with a present tense form of Kashubian: bëc and a past form.
The most common, modern way is to take a past tense form with a pronoun or noun. Regionally a combined form of Kashubian: że is added.
A type of past perfect can be formed using a present tense form of Kashubian: miec and the past participle of the verb.
Forms ending -ała can be shortened to -a.
An obsolete pluperfect can formed using the appropriate past form of Kashubian: bëc, followed by the past form of the verb, or by using a past form of Kashubian: bëc or Kashubian: miec plus the passive participle.
The subjunctive mood can be formed using Kashubian: bë and the past tense of the verb.
The passive voice is formed with Kashubian: bëc and the passive participle.
The infinitive ending is -c.
The active adverbial participle formed with -ąc (more common -ącë) is uncommon in spoken Kashubian, appearing more in literature.
The active adjectival participle is formed with -ący.
The passive adjectival participle is formed with -ty, -ny, or -ony, and to some extent -łi.
The anterior adverbial pariticple is formed with -łszë or -wszë from perfective verbs.
The possessive pronouns Kashubian: mój, twój, nasz, wasz, czij as well as the determiner pronouns Kashubian: ten, kòżdi, żôden, chtërny, sóm and the numeral Kashubian: jeden take adjectival declensions. The possessive pronouns sometimes have contracted forms, such as Kashubian: mégò.
The third person oblique forms such as Kashubian: jegò, ji/jé, jich/jejich have the alternative forms Kashubian: niegò, ni, nich when after a preposition.
| Personal pronouns | Singular | Plural | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | Polite | ||||
| masc. | fem. | neut. | epic. | fem. | ||||||
| Nominative/vocative (nazéwôcz/wòłiwôcz) | jô | të | òn | òna | òno | më | wa | òni/ni | òne/ònë/në | Wë |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | mie, mnie | cebie/ce | jegò/niegò/gò | ji/jé/ni | jegò | nas/naju | was/waju | jich/jejich/nich | jich/jejich/nich | Was |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | mie, mnie | tobie/cë/cebie | jemù/mù | ji | jemù/mù | nóm/nama/nami | wama | jim/jima | jim/jima | Wóm/Wami |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | mie, miã, mnie | cebie/ce/cã | jegò/jen/gò | jã/niã | je/nie | nas/naju | was/waju | jich | je | Was |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | mną | tobą | nim | nią | nim | nama | wama | nimi/jima/nima | nimi/jima/nima | Wama/Wami |
| Locative (môlnik) | mie/mnie | cebie/tobie | nim | ni | nim | nas/naju | was/waju | nich | nich | Was |
| Case | |
|---|---|
| reflexive sã/sebie | |
| Nominative/vocative (nazéwôcz/wòłiwôcz) | — |
| Genitive (rodzôcz) | sebie/se/sã |
| Dative (dôwôcz) | sobie/se/so |
| Accusative (winowôcz) | sebie/sã/so |
| Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) | sobą |
| Locative (môlnik) | sebie/sobie |
Kashubian has a complex system of numerals and related quantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb agreement with the resulting noun phrase. Kashubian uses the long scale.
| Numeral | Cardinal | Ordinal |
|---|---|---|
| 0. | nul | nulowi |
| 1. | jeden | pierszi |
| 2. | dwa | drëdżi |
| 3. | trzë | trzecy |
| 4. | sztërë | czwiôrti/czwôrti |
| 5. | piãc | piąti |
| 6. | szesc | szósti |
| 7. | sétmë/sedem | sótmi/sódmi |
| 8. | òsmë/òsem | ósmi |
| 9. | dzewiãc | dzewiąti |
| 10. | dzesãc | dzesąti |
| 11. | jednôsce | jednôsti |
| 12. | dwanôsce | dwanôsti |
| 13. | trzënôsce | trzënôsti |
| 14. | sztërnôsce | sztërnôsti |
| 15. | piãtnôsce | piãtnôsti |
| 16. | szestnôsce | szestnôsti |
| 17. | sétmënôsce/sedemnôsce | sétmënôsti/sedemnôsti |
| 18. | òsmënôsce/òsemnôsce | òsmënôsti/òsemnôsti |
| 19. | dzewiãtnôsce | dzewiãtnôsti |
| 20. | dwadzesce | dwadzesti |
| 30. | trzëdzescë | trzëdzesti |
| 40. | sztërdzescë | sztërdzesti |
| 50. | piãcdzesąt | piãcdzesąti |
| 60. | szescdzesąt | szescdzesąti |
| 70. | sétmëdzesąt/sedemdzesąt | sétmëdzesąti/sedemdzesąti |
| 80. | òsmëdzesąt/òsemdzesąt | òsmëdzesąti/òsemdzesąti |
| 90. | dzewiãcdzesąt | dzewiãcdzesąti |
| 100. | sto | setny |
| 200. | dwasta | dwasetny |
| 300. | trzësta | trzësetny |
| 400. | sztërësta | sztërësetny |
| 500. | piãcset | piãcsetny |
| 600. | szescset | szescsetny |
| 700. | sétmëset/sedemset | sétmësetny/sedemsetny |
| 800. | òsmëset/òsemset | òsmësetny/òsemsetny |
| 900. | dzewiãcset | dzewiãcsetny |
| 1,000. | tësąc1 | tësączny |
| 1,000,000. | milión1 | milionowi |
| 1,000,000,000. | miliard1 | — |
| 1,000,000,000,000. | bilión1 | — |
| 1) Grammatically a noun. | ||
Some adverbs, pronouns, and all conjunctions, interjections, particles, and prepositions are indeclinable.
Kashubian has a typical set of sentence types, including declarative, nominal, exclamatory, imperative, interrogatory, and compound sentences.