Kamula–Elevala languages explained

Kamula–Elevala
Also Known As:Kamula–Elevala River
Region:northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea
Familycolor:Papuan
Fam1:Trans–New Guinea
Fam2:Central West New Guinea
Fam3:Awyu–Ok[1]
Child1:Awin–Pa (Awin–Pare)
Child2:Kamula
Protoname:Proto-Kamula–Elevala
Glotto:kamu1264
Glottorefname:Kamula–Elevala
Map:Awin-Pa-Kamula languages.svg
Mapcaption:Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea

The Kamula–Elevala languages are a small family of the Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.

Languages

There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.

A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows.

Kamula-Elevala family

Classification

Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.[2]

Reconstruction

Proto-Kamula–Elevala
Target:Kamula–Elevala languages
Familycolor:Papuan
Ancestor:Proto-Trans–New Guinea
Ancestor2:Proto-Awyu–Ok

Phonology

Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:[1]

BilabialAlveolarPalatalVelar
Nasal
  • pronounced as /m/
  • pronounced as /n/
Plosivevoiceless
  • pronounced as /p/ (or *pronounced as /h/)
  • pronounced as /t/
  • pronounced as /k/
voiced
  • pronounced as /b/ (or *pronounced as /p/)
  • pronounced as /d/
  • pronounced as /g/
Fricative
  • pronounced as /s/
Semivowel
  • pronounced as /w/
  • pronounced as /j/
FrontCentralBack
Close
  • pronounced as /i/
  • pronounced as /u/
Close-mid
  • pronounced as /e/
  • pronounced as /o/
Open-mid
  • pronounced as /ɔ/
Open
  • pronounced as /æ/
  • pronounced as /a/

There is also the diphthong *pronounced as /ai/.

Pronouns

Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:[1]

sgdupl
1
  • ni, *ki
2
  • go
  • gi
3

In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.

Vocabulary

Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:[1]

gloss Proto-Kamula-Elevala
head
  • ke̝ba
ear
  • m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝]
eye
  • kinɔ
nose
  • kine̝
tusk/tooth
  • bate̝
tongue/flame
  • taⁱ
knee/leg
  • tama
bone
  • ke̝dɔ
louse
  • awV
dog
  • ti
pig
  • m₂aⁱnæ
bird
  • te̝ja
egg/fruit/seed
  • m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝]
tree
  • je̝
man
  • k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ]
sun/day
  • gani
stone
  • ike̝
name
  • pi
eat/drink
  • de̝-
one
  • tV[n/d]o̝

Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):[3]

gloss Proto-Kamula-Elevala
house
  • aja
mushroom
  • ap(ɔ,o)
hear
  • dade-
where?
  • dai
sago
  • daja
eat, drink
  • de-
burn, cook
  • du-
middle
  • dunu
brother
  • ei
sun, day
  • gani
belly, bowels
  • gene
leech
  • gimada
hold
  • hamV-
upright
  • hane
name
  • hi
light (in weight)
  • hodoka
stand, stay
  • hV-
sago thatch
  • jeme
hit
  • jV-
bone
  • kedɔ
man
  • kopo
now, today
  • kwa-
thigh
  • madina
shoulder
  • makæ
know
  • maN(æ,a)-
teeth, mouth
  • mat(e,i)
kindle
  • mi-
son, child
  • mi
body
  • mot(e,i)
joint
  • mu
tusk
  • patæ
skin disease
  • peseni
die
  • po-
tie, wrap
  • podi
pierce, burst
  • poko-
heart, pity
  • pɔdɔw(e,a)
be soft
  • pɔpɔtæ-
close eyes
  • pudi-
sit
  • pV-
speech
  • sa
rafter
  • saka
paddle
  • sode
tongue
  • tai
afternoon
  • tamide
make, do
  • ti-
embers
  • tine
bow (for arrows)
upstream
  • t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o)
thorn
  • tu
banana
  • tuma
go
  • tV-
one
  • tVdo
illicit
  • u
scar
  • ud(e,i)
urine
  • ute
grub
  • wæja
left (hand)
  • weke

Proto-Elevala

Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):[3]

gloss Proto-Elevala
hand, arm
  • a
lie down
  • æ-
sand
  • daNi
give
  • dæ-
flea
  • dideme
meat
  • dinæ
testicles
  • dipɔ
crocodile
  • dope
sap, juice
  • dɔdæ
fingernail
  • d(ɔ,a)kæ
see
  • dV-
sugarcane
  • ga
beak
  • ga
sing
  • gi-
gums
  • gine
younger brother
  • gɔmɔde
cut
  • gu
stick
  • gum(ɔ,a)
count
  • hiakV-
breath
  • hine
do, make
  • hɔmV-
carry on head
  • i-
stone
  • ike
song
  • jɔkæ
set on fire
  • kamV-
leg
  • kate
beetle
  • kiame
thunder
  • kima(ti)
nose
  • kine
face
  • kiNɔ-namæ58
white
  • kɔnV-kaina59
coconut
  • kɔpɔkæ
pig
  • mainæ
head
  • mini
below
  • moka
fish
  • mone
stem
  • moNæ
what?
  • na
cane mail shirt
  • napo
charcoal
  • o
drum
  • pi
heavy
  • piena
buttocks
  • po
smell
  • pɔmæ
bride price
  • puNe
goanna
  • sɔNɔmæ
yesterday
  • te
sago thatch
  • temæ
rattan
  • tike
ground, earth
wild
  • tɔna

Vocabulary comparison

The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970),[4] Shaw (1973),[5] and Shaw (1986),[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.[7]

The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. , kro for “bone”) or not (e.g. mɔgɔ, kɛndɔkɛ for “ear”). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.

gloss Aekyom
headkeba; kiba pɔƀe
hairosɛ; ouse tɛnɛ
earmogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ kɛndɔkɛ
eyekere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ krO-ŋɛ
nosekene; kine koe
toothmale; marɛ; pɛrɛ pʰɛtɛ
tonguetiː
legtamakali
lousekiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ huɔlɛ
dogti; til psane
pigmele
birdtie; tiye
eggmoʔo; mɔʔɔ
bloodsowo; sɔwɔ
boneko; kɔ kro
skinsia; siga; siya kare
breastbu tutɛ
treei̧; ĩ de; doe
mankobo
womanwigi
sungẽnɛ̃; gine toe
moonabi
watermɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume waɛ
firene; nɛ de; doe
stoneiebɔ; iyebo
road, pathutigi tɛnɛ
namehi hi
eatda; denu; de-nu
oneoteso; ɔtesɔ
twodiyabo; diyabɔ
String Bagdissa; disaɔ

Evolution

Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:[8]

Aekyom language

Pa language

Loanwords

Kamula and Doso

Loanwords between Kamula and Doso:[3]

No. Kamula Doso Turumsa
1 'father' [a:] 'father' [a:] 'father'
2 'mother' ['wai] 'mother' ['wai] 'mother'
3 'older brother' ['bapa] 'older brother'
4 'older sister' ['nana] 'older sister'
5 'blood' ['omari] 'blood'
6 'stomach' [kù'ko] 'belly (outside)'
7 'wallaby' [ka'pia] 'wallaby' [kapia] 'wallaby'
8 'cassowary' [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary'
9 'cloud' ['waɾa] 'cloud'
10 'sand' ['asiɾa] 'sand'

Aekyom and Ok

Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages:[3]

No. Aekyom Mountain Ok Lowland Ok
1 [mon] 'rubbish'
  • mɔːn 'rubbish, compost'
2 [ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled'
  • ɾaŋg 'garden'
  • joŋg 'garden'
3 [khno] 'canoe'
  • kono 'canoe'
4 [ambum(e)] 'turtle'
  • ambɔːm 'turtle species'
  • ambom 'turtle'
5 [khwiɺe] 'hornbill'
  • kaweɾ 'hornbill'
6 [ubine] 'rhinoceros beetle'
7 [mom] 'nephew, maternal'
  • mɔːm 'mother's brother'
  • mom 'mother's brother'
8 [ahwoe] 'grandmother'
  • ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother'
  • apok 'grandmother'
9 [khendoke] 'outer ear'
  • kindɔːŋg 'inner ear'
  • kende 'ear'
10 [mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth'
  • maŋgat 'mouth, chin'
  • maŋgot 'mouth'

Kamula and Aramia River

Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages:[3]

No. Kamula Waruna Gogodala
1 'taro' [bibi] 'taro' [bibi] 'taro'
2 'yam' [waisa] 'yam'
3 'canoe' [gwawa] 'canoe' [gawa] 'canoe'
4 'paddle, oar' [keari] 'paddle' [keari] 'paddle'
5 'chicken' [kakaba] 'fowl'
6 'breadfruit' [kawaki] 'breadfruit'

Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut

Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970[9]):[3]

Abbreviations
Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970) Kamula–Elevala
pAD *dat- 'hear' pKE *dade- 'hear'
pAD *do- 'be cooked' pKE *du- 'burn, cook'
pAD *ɛdex- 'give' pE *dæ- 'give'
pAD *füp 'name' pKE *hi 'name'
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' pE *go 'you (sg.)'
pAD *ket 'flower' Pa [ke] 'blossom'
pAD *mak 'shoulder' pKE *makæ 'shoulder'
pAD *nop 'I' pE *nɔ 'I'
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly'
pAD *xaiban 'head' Pa [keba] 'head'
pAD *xop 'male, man' pKE *kopo 'man'
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' Pa [ẽ] 'tree'
pA *bu 'buttocks' pE *po 'buttocks'
pA *dübe, *dübi 'island' Aekyom [dupi] 'island'
pA *düb(-ro) 'heart' Kamula 'heart'
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' pE *moka 'below'
pA *midi(n) 'thigh' pKE *madina 'thigh'
pA *wün 'liver' Pa [wumɛ] 'liver'
pA *xui(-to) 'sky' Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven'
pD *ba- 'sit' pKE *pV- 'sit'
pD *kumöt 'thunder' pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'

External links

Notes and References

  1. https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/central-west-new-guinea/digul-river-ok New Guinea World, Digul River – Ok
  2. Edgar Suter & Timothy Usher (2017) "The Kamula–Elevala language family", Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 35: 106–131.
  3. Language & Linguistics in Melanesia . 35 . 2017 . 0023-1959 . The Kamula-Elevala Language Family . Edgar . Suter . Timothy . Usher . Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea . Port Moresby.
  4. McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970.
  5. Shaw, R.D. "A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973.
  6. Shaw, R.D. "The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986.
  7. Web site: TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea . Greenhill . Simon . 2016. 2020-11-05.
  8. Book: Pawley . Andrew . Hammarström . Harald . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Trans New Guinea family . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 21–196 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
  9. Healey, Alan 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut phonology. In: Stephen A. Wurm and Donald C. Laycock (eds). Pacific Linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. (PL C-13). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. 997-1063.