Kamula–Elevala languages explained

Kamula–Elevala
Also Known As:	Kamula–Elevala River
Region:	northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea
Familycolor:	Papuan
Fam1:	Trans–New Guinea
Fam2:	Central West New Guinea
Fam3:	Awyu–Ok^[1]
Child1:	Awin–Pa (Awin–Pare)
Child2:	Kamula
Protoname:	Proto-Kamula–Elevala
Glotto:	kamu1264
Glottorefname:	Kamula–Elevala
Map:	Awin-Pa-Kamula languages.svg
Mapcaption:	Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea

The Kamula–Elevala languages are a small family of the Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.

Languages

There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.

• Kamula
• Awin–Pa (Elevala River)
  • Aekyowm (Awin)
  • Pare (Pa)

A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows.

Kamula-Elevala family

• Kamula [1,100 speakers in 2000]
• Elevala (= Awin-Pare) family
  • Pa (= Pare, Ba, Debepare) [6,500 speakers in 2000]
  • Aekyom (= Awin, Akium) [21,100 speakers in 2000]
    • Northeastern (= Aekyom-Skai)
    • North Central
    • Southeastern (= Aekyom-Pare)
    • Western

Classification

Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.^[2]

Reconstruction

Proto-Kamula–Elevala
Target:	Kamula–Elevala languages
Familycolor:	Papuan
Ancestor:	Proto-Trans–New Guinea
Ancestor2:	Proto-Awyu–Ok

Phonology

Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:^[1]

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasal		pronounced as /m/	pronounced as /n/
Plosive	voiceless	pronounced as /p/ (or *pronounced as /h/)	pronounced as /t/		pronounced as /k/
	voiced	pronounced as /b/ (or *pronounced as /p/)	pronounced as /d/		pronounced as /g/
Fricative			pronounced as /s/
Semivowel		pronounced as /w/		pronounced as /j/

	Front	Central	Back
Close	pronounced as /i/		pronounced as /u/
Close-mid	pronounced as /e/		pronounced as /o/
Open-mid			pronounced as /ɔ/
Open	pronounced as /æ/	pronounced as /a/

There is also the diphthong *pronounced as /ai/.

Pronouns

Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:^[1]

	sg	du	pl
1	nɔ	ni, *ki
2	go	gi
3	jɔ

In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.

Vocabulary

Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:^[1]

gloss	Proto-Kamula-Elevala
head	ke̝ba
ear	m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝]
eye	kinɔ
nose	kine̝
tusk/tooth	bate̝
tongue/flame	taⁱ
knee/leg	tama
bone	ke̝dɔ
louse	awV
dog	ti
pig	m₂aⁱnæ
bird	te̝ja
egg/fruit/seed	m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝]
tree	je̝
man	k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ]
sun/day	gani
stone	ike̝
name	pi
eat/drink	de̝-
one	tV[n/d]o̝

Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):^[3]

gloss	Proto-Kamula-Elevala
house	aja
mushroom	ap(ɔ,o)
hear	dade-
where?	dai
sago	daja
eat, drink	de-
burn, cook	du-
middle	dunu
brother	ei
sun, day	gani
belly, bowels	gene
leech	gimada
hold	hamV-
upright	hane
name	hi
light (in weight)	hodoka
stand, stay	hV-
sago thatch	jeme
hit	jV-
bone	kedɔ
man	kopo
now, today	kwa-
thigh	madina
shoulder	makæ
know	maN(æ,a)-
teeth, mouth	mat(e,i)
kindle	mi-
son, child	mi
body	mot(e,i)
joint	mu
tusk	patæ
skin disease	peseni
die	po-
tie, wrap	podi
pierce, burst	poko-
heart, pity	pɔdɔw(e,a)
be soft	pɔpɔtæ-
close eyes	pudi-
sit	pV-
speech	sa
rafter	saka
paddle	sode
tongue	tai
afternoon	tamide
make, do	ti-
embers	tine
bow (for arrows)	tɔ
upstream	t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o)
thorn	tu
banana	tuma
go	tV-
one	tVdo
illicit	u
scar	ud(e,i)
urine	ute
grub	wæja
left (hand)	weke

Proto-Elevala

Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):^[3]

gloss	Proto-Elevala
hand, arm	a
lie down	æ-
sand	daNi
give	dæ-
flea	dideme
meat	dinæ
testicles	dipɔ
crocodile	dope
sap, juice	dɔdæ
fingernail	d(ɔ,a)kæ
see	dV-
sugarcane	ga
beak	ga
sing	gi-
gums	gine
younger brother	gɔmɔde
cut	gu
stick	gum(ɔ,a)
count	hiakV-
breath	hine
do, make	hɔmV-
carry on head	i-
stone	ike
song	jɔkæ
set on fire	kamV-
leg	kate
beetle	kiame
thunder	kima(ti)
nose	kine
face	kiNɔ-namæ58
white	kɔnV-kaina59
coconut	kɔpɔkæ
pig	mainæ
head	mini
below	moka
fish	mone
stem	moNæ
what?	na
cane mail shirt	napo
charcoal	o
drum	pi
heavy	piena
buttocks	po
smell	pɔmæ
bride price	puNe
goanna	sɔNɔmæ
yesterday	te
sago thatch	temæ
rattan	tike
ground, earth	tɔ
wild	tɔna

Vocabulary comparison

The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970),^[4] Shaw (1973),^[5] and Shaw (1986),^[6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.^[7]

The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. kɔ, kro for “bone”) or not (e.g. mɔgɔ, kɛndɔkɛ for “ear”). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.

gloss		Aekyom
head	keba; kiba	pɔƀe
hair	osɛ; ouse	tɛnɛ
ear	mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ	kɛndɔkɛ
eye	kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ	krO-ŋɛ
nose	kene; kine	koe
tooth	male; marɛ; pɛrɛ	pʰɛtɛ
tongue	tɛ	tiː
leg	tamakali
louse	kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ	huɔlɛ
dog	ti; til	psane
pig	mele
bird	tie; tiye
egg	moʔo; mɔʔɔ
blood	sowo; sɔwɔ
bone	ko; kɔ	kro
skin	sia; siga; siya	kare
breast	bu	tutɛ
tree	i̧; ĩ	de; doe
man	kobo
woman	wigi
sun	gẽnɛ̃; gine	toe
moon	abi
water	mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume	waɛ
fire	ne; nɛ	de; doe
stone	iebɔ; iyebo
road, path	utigi	tɛnɛ
name	hi	hi
eat	da; denu; de-nu	də
one	oteso; ɔtesɔ
two	diyabo; diyabɔ
String Bag	dissa; disaɔ

Evolution

Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:^[8]

Aekyom language

• kendoke ‘ear’ < *kand(e,i)k[V]
• khatike ‘leg’ < *k(a,o)
• ndok[V], kare ‘skin’ < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
• di ‘firewood, fire’ < *inda

Pa language

• keba ‘head’ < *kV(mb,p)(i,u)tu
• ama ‘mother < *am(a,i)
• di- ‘burn’ < *nj(a,e,i)

Loanwords

Kamula and Doso

Loanwords between Kamula and Doso:^[3]

No.	Kamula	Doso	Turumsa
1	'father'	[a:] 'father'	[a:] 'father'
2	'mother'	['wai] 'mother'	['wai] 'mother'
3	'older brother'	['bapa] 'older brother'
4	'older sister'	['nana] 'older sister'
5	'blood'	['omari] 'blood'
6	'stomach'		[kù'ko] 'belly (outside)'
7	'wallaby'	[ka'pia] 'wallaby'	[kapia] 'wallaby'
8	'cassowary'	[wa:taɾa] 'cassowary'	[wa:taɾa] 'cassowary'
9	'cloud'	['waɾa] 'cloud'
10	'sand'	['asiɾa] 'sand'

Aekyom and Ok

Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages:^[3]

No.	Aekyom	Mountain Ok	Lowland Ok
1	[mon] 'rubbish'	mɔːn 'rubbish, compost'
2	[ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled'	ɾaŋg 'garden'	joŋg 'garden'
3	[khno] 'canoe'		kono 'canoe'
4	[ambum(e)] 'turtle'	ambɔːm 'turtle species'	ambom 'turtle'
5	[khwiɺe] 'hornbill'	kaweːɾ 'Papuan hornbill'	kaweɾ 'hornbill'
6	[ubine] 'rhinoceros beetle'	umiːn 'rhinoceros beetle'
7	[mom] 'nephew, maternal'	mɔːm 'mother's brother'	mom 'mother's brother'
8	[ahwoe] 'grandmother'	ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother'	apok 'grandmother'
9	[khendoke] 'outer ear'	kindɔːŋg 'inner ear'	kende 'ear'
10	[mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth'	maŋgat 'mouth, chin'	maŋgot 'mouth'

Kamula and Aramia River

Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages:^[3]

No.	Kamula	Waruna	Gogodala
1	'taro'	[bibi] 'taro'	[bibi] 'taro'
2	'yam'		[waisa] 'yam'
3	'canoe'	[gwawa] 'canoe'	[gawa] 'canoe'
4	'paddle, oar'	[keari] 'paddle'	[keari] 'paddle'
5	'chicken'	[kakaba] 'fowl'
6	'breadfruit'	[kawaki] 'breadfruit'

Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut

Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970^[9]):^[3]

Abbreviations

• pAD = proto-Awyu–Dumut
• pA = proto-Awyu
• pD = proto-Dumut
• pKE = proto-Kamula–Elevala
• pK = proto-Kamula
• pE = proto-Elevala

Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970)	Kamula–Elevala
pAD *dat- 'hear'	pKE *dade- 'hear'
pAD *do- 'be cooked'	pKE *du- 'burn, cook'
pAD *ɛdex- 'give'	pE *dæ- 'give'
pAD *füp 'name'	pKE *hi 'name'
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)'	pE *go 'you (sg.)'
pAD *ket 'flower'	Pa [ke] 'blossom'
pAD *mak 'shoulder'	pKE *makæ 'shoulder'
pAD *nop 'I'	pE *nɔ 'I'
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines'	Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly'
pAD *xaiban 'head'	Pa [keba] 'head'
pAD *xop 'male, man'	pKE *kopo 'man'
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire'	Pa [ẽ] 'tree'
pA *bu 'buttocks'	pE *po 'buttocks'
pA *dübe, *dübi 'island'	Aekyom [dupi] 'island'
pA *düb(-ro) 'heart'	Kamula 'heart'
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath'	pE *moka 'below'
pA *midi(n) 'thigh'	pKE *madina 'thigh'
pA *wün 'liver'	Pa [wumɛ] 'liver'
pA *xui(-to) 'sky'	Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven'
pD *ba- 'sit'	pKE *pV- 'sit'
pD *kumöt 'thunder'	pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'

External links

• Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok
• Usher & Suter, Proto–Kamula – Elevala River

Notes and References

1. https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/trans-new-guinea/central-west-new-guinea/digul-river-ok New Guinea World, Digul River – Ok
2. Edgar Suter & Timothy Usher (2017) "The Kamula–Elevala language family", Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 35: 106–131.
3. Language & Linguistics in Melanesia . 35 . 2017 . 0023-1959 . The Kamula-Elevala Language Family . Edgar . Suter . Timothy . Usher . Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea . Port Moresby.
4. McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970.
5. Shaw, R.D. "A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973.
6. Shaw, R.D. "The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986.
7. Web site: TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea . Greenhill . Simon . 2016. 2020-11-05.
8. Book: Pawley . Andrew . Hammarström . Harald . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Trans New Guinea family . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 21–196 . 978-3-11-028642-7.
9. Healey, Alan 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut phonology. In: Stephen A. Wurm and Donald C. Laycock (eds). Pacific Linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. (PL C-13). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. 997-1063.