Kalam language explained

Kalam
States:Papua New Guinea
Region:Middle Ramu District, Madang Province;
Mount Hagen District, Western Highlands Province
Speakers:15,000
Date:1991
Ref:e18
Familycolor:Papuan
Fam1:Trans–New Guinea
Fam2:Madang
Fam3:Rai Coast–Kalam
Fam4:Kalamic
Iso3:kmh
Glotto:kala1397
Glottorefname:Kalam

Kalam is a Kalam language of Papua New Guinea. It is closely related to Kobon, and shares many of the features of that language. Kalam is spoken in Middle Ramu District of Madang Province and in Mount Hagen District of Western Highlands Province.[1]

Thanks to decades of studies by anthropologists such as Ralph Bulmer and others, Kalam is one of the best-studied Trans-New Guinea languages to date.

Dialects

There are two distinct dialects of Kalam that are highly distinguishable from each other.

Kobon is closely related.

Kalam has an elaborate pandanus avoidance register used during karuka harvest that has been extensively documented. The Kalam pandanus language, called alŋaw mnm (pandanus language) or ask-mosk mnm (avoidance language), is also used when eating or cooking cassowary.[2]

Phonology

Consonants

[3]
BilabialDental-
alveolar		PalatalVelarLabial-
velar
Voiceless stopspronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Voiced prenasalized stopspronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Nasals stopspronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Voiceless fricativepronounced as /link/
Lateralpronounced as /link/
Semivowelspronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/

Vowels

!! Front! Central! Back
High(pronounced as /link/)(pronounced as /link/)
Midpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Lowpronounced as /link/

Evolution

Below are some Kalam reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea proposed by Pawley (2012, 2018).[4] [5] Data is from the Etp|italic=no dialect unless otherwise noted. Data from Ti|italic=no, the other major dialect, is also given when noted.

Kalam
(?)*su- ‘bite’ su-
  • (mb,m)elak ‘light, lightning, brightness’
melk [melɨk] ‘light’
  • [w]ani ‘who?’
an
  • am(a,i) ‘mother’
ami
  • ambi ‘man’
b [mbə]
  • apus[i] ‘grandparent’
aps [aβɨs] ‘grandmother’
  • aya ‘sister’
ay
  • -i(t,l) ‘ verbal suffix’
-it
  • iman ‘louse’
iman
  • imbi ‘name’
yb [yimp]
  • -it ‘2/3 dual verbal suffix’
-it
  • k(aw,o)nan ‘shadow/spirit’
kawnan ‘spirit of the dead’
  • k(o,u)ma(n,ŋ)[V] ‘neck, nape’
koŋam (metathesis) (cf. Kobon uŋam, loss of *k)
  • kakV- ‘carry on shoulder’
kak-
  • kamb(a,u)u[na] ‘stone’
kab [kamp]
  • kanim ‘cuscus’
kmn ‘game mammal (generic)’
  • kin(i,u)[m]- ‘sleep’
kn- [kɨn]
  • kindil ‘root’
kdl [kɨndɨl]
  • kinV- ‘sleep’
kn-
  • kumut, *tumuk ‘thunder’
tumuk
  • kumV- ‘die’
kum-
  • m(o,u)k ‘milk, sap, breast’
muk (Ti dialect mok)
  • ma- ‘not’
ma-
  • ma(n,k,L)[a] ‘ground’
man
  • maŋgat[a] ‘teeth’
meg [meŋk]
  • maŋgV ‘compact round object, egg’
magi
  • mapVn ‘liver’
mapn
  • mbalaŋ ‘flame’
malaŋ, maŋlaŋ
  • mbapa ‘father’
bapi
  • mo[k,ŋg]Vm ‘joint’
mogm
  • muk ‘brain’
muk
  • muk ‘milk’
muk (Ti dialect mok)
  • mund-maŋgV ‘heart’
mudmagi
  • mV ‘taro’
m
  • mVkVm ‘jaw, cheek’
mkem ‘cheek’
  • mVn[a]-‘be, live, stay’
md-
  • n(o,u)man ‘mind, soul’
noman ‘soul’
  • na ‘’
-n-, -in ‘ subj. agreement’
  • niman ‘louse’
iman
  • nok ‘water’
ñg
  • nu ‘ independent’
-nu-, -un ‘1PL subj. agreement’
  • nV ‘child’
ñi ‘son’
  • nVŋg- ‘know, hear, see’
ng- (Ti dialect), nŋ- ‘see, perceive, etc.’
  • ŋaŋ[a] ‘baby’
-ŋaŋ ‘baby’
  • panV ‘female’
pañ ‘daughter’
  • sambV ‘cloud’
seb [semp]
  • saŋ ‘story, song’
saŋ ‘women’s song’
  • saŋgil ‘hand, finger’
(?) saglaŋ ‘little finger’
  • si(m,mb)(i,u) ‘guts’
sb [sɨmp]
  • sisi
ss [sɨs] ‘urine’
  • sVkVm ‘smoke’
skum, sukum
  • takVn[V] ‘moon’
takn [taɣɨn]
  • tu ‘axe’
tu
  • tuk- ‘cut’
tk- ‘sever’
  • tumuk, *kumut ‘thunder’
tumuk
  • tVk- ‘cut, cut off’
tk- ‘sever, cut off’
  • -un ‘1st plural subject’
-un
  • -Vn ‘ subj. agreement’
-n, -in
  • walaka ‘testicles’
walak
  • wani ‘who?’
an
  • wati ‘fence’
wati
  • yaka ‘bird’
yakt

Verbs

Kalam has eight tense-aspect categories. There are four past tenses, two present tenses, and two future tenses, which are all marked using suffixes:

Intransitive verbs in Kalam can be classified as either active or stative. Some active intransitive verbs are:

Some stative verbs are:

Serial verb constructions

Transitivity is derived using resultative or cause-effect serial verb constructions.

Other serial verb constructions in Kalam include:

Nouns

Compounds

Some examples of nominal compounds in Kalam:

Animal names

Fauna classification (folk taxonomy) in the Kalam language has been extensively studied by Ralph Bulmer and others. Kalam speakers classify wild mammals into three major categories:

Other animal categories are:

Rodent names include:

Marsupial names include:

Reptile names and folk taxonomy in Kalam:[7]

Frog names in Kalam are:[6]

daŋboŋ

kosoj

kogop

kwyos, gepgep

gojmay (also bin-pk)

kwelek

mabas

kabanm

kabanm [mature], lk (including bopnm) [immature]

gwnm

gwnm sbmganpygak

lk (including bopnm)

gwnm

akpt, cebs

Note: Cophixalus shellyi, Choerophryne darlingtoni, and Oxydactyla brevicrus also tend to be identified by Kalam speakers as lk if calling from low vegetation, but as gwnm (usually applied to Cophixalus riparius and Xenorhina rostrata) if found in daytime hiding spots.[6]

Plant categories include:

A comprehensive list of Kalam plant and animal names is given below.

Kalam Scientific name Common name Type
(?) mañ, wnb
(G) ald, ajay, gagn, gmdoŋ = gumdoŋ, gubodm, jam, jejaw, kaj-kot = kaj-kut, kdiplŋ, kiaw, kopnm, kosay, kubap, mluk-ps, mŋay, mseŋ wask, mutuŋ, (K) old = (G) ald, mutuŋ, wask, weñ, yam, yluŋ Ficus spp.
(G) cb-yng; ymanŋn pl-pat
(G) kosad, (K) kosod Themeda australis
(G) mab-yb, (K) mon-yb; ymn Frullania sp.
(G) slek yakt, (K) slk-yakt
(K) ald-magi-ket, (G) ald-magl-ket; maldapan-kl Rhamphocharis crassirostris
(K) als aydk, (G) als ladk Levieria becarriana
(K) añmi, (G) añml, bawl, dawl, kuyn, ? smay-kolay Cyathea sp. or spp.
(K) gudi = (G) gudl; cod, ktem Pandanus antaresensis
(K) gudi-ws = (G) gudl-ws Anisomys imitator rat that feeds on pandanus nuts
(K) gudi-ws, (G) guld-ws Anisomys imitator
(K) gusay-kob, (G) gusalkob; molaj
(K) jolbeg pk, (G) jolbeg pok, jolbeg sml Rhipidura atra females and immature males
(K) jolbeg pk, (G) jolbeg pok; jolbeg sml females and immature males
(K) kotp generic
(K) kuŋb pk, (G) kuŋb pok mature male
(K) magi kotp, (G) magl katp painted ringtail possum's nest
(K) maydapan = (G) maldapan
(K) maydapan, (G) maldapan generic
(K) mmañp
(K) mmañp, (G) mmeñp
(K) mmañp, (G) mmeñp generic
(K) mon-yb, (G) mab-yb generic
(K) old = (G) ald, alud Ficus augusta
(K) old, (G) ald, alud Ficus hesperidiiformis
(K) pd = (G) ped Dioscorea generic
(K) pd, (G) ped Dioscorea spp., Dioscorea alata generic
(K) sakp, (G) sakay Saccharum edule generic
(K) slk-ñu, (G) slek-ñu Pittosporum tenuivalve
(K) slk-yakt, (G) slekyakt Ifrita kowaldi
(K) slp, (G) slup tail feathers of certain long-tailed birds-of-paradise
(K) tdpn-mon, (G) tdpn-mab Meliosma pinnata
(K) yabay, (G) yabal
(PL) alnaw majnb generic
? Gallinago hardwickii ? snipe sp.
? aleg Lepidagathis sp.
? aŋmip, jmad, klŋan Morelia viridis
? dob Accipiter buergersi
? glmd
? god Accipiter novaehollandiae
? gogiben aydk Dioscorea sp.
? gokal Eurystomus orientalis
? gokal Oriolus szalayi
? gokob Cracticus cassicus
? gopkob Amalocichla incerta
? kabay asdal, ? kabay kl Diphyllodes magnificus
? kabay wog-dep; (K) kabay pk, (G) kabay pok Parotia carolae
? kabi-kas-ket Gerygone chloronota
? kaj-tmd, god Falco peregrinus
? kaj-ypl-si-dak, ? koptt, ? yptt, ? yptut Ducula chalconota
? kapi-kñopl, kñopl Rallus philippensis
? kiaw Ficus copiosa, Ficus wassa
? kmn sbi Phalanger permixteo
? kodkol Acanthophis antarcticus
? koŋak sd-ket, koŋak mseŋ-ket, kapi koŋak Rallus pectoralis
? koptt, ? kaj-ypl-si-dak, ? yptut Ducula zoeae
? kosodyakt Mirafra javanica
? kotleg, jjgayaŋ Monachella muelleriana
? kulep Aegotheles archboldi
? kulep Eurostopodus archboldi
? kulwak, ? tabal Charmosyna josefinae phases
? madaw, ? takp Phalanger orientalis
? mmañp Collocalia vanikorensis
? mosak kejŋ Macruromys major
? mukbel Gallicolumba jobiensis
? mumjel Ninox connivens
? mumjel, mumjel magi nokom Podargus ocellatus
? mutuŋ Ficus calopilina, Ficus pachyrrachis
? sataw Micropechis ikaheka
? sbaw Cacomantis castaneiventris
? sdwey-madwey Chalcites lucidus
? señŋ Timeliopsis fulvigula
? sjweywey Acanthiza murina
? skek Sericornis papuensis
? skp Schefflera inophylloides, Schefflera stolleana
? spsep gs Neositta chrysoptera
? tabal
? tumuk-yakt Charmosyna placentis
? wask Ficus arfakiensis
? waymad Euodia
? yabagay Megapodius freycinet
? yabay asdal Paradisaea rudolphi
? yaked Echimipera sp.
abben Uromys anak
ablabl, binmuŋ Ascarina philippinensis
ablay Schefflera forbesii
abok Artocarpus lacucha
abownm Talegalla jobiensis
acc, aknaŋ, alsas, cbam, gajt, kaban, kadŋ, ken, keykal, kñg, kolem, kolem lkañ, kolem tud, kowñak, luol, magepnap, mayj, moyg, mugut, ñnagl, nmug, pd ñn agal, pd sgoy, sajep, sam, sbi, sgoy, sobu, soŋ, suan, wanab Dioscorea spp. cultivated kinds
ackol, ackolkol, koptob sphagnum moss
acomc = acowmc Callicarpa longifolia
act, kaban, (K) pd, (G) ped; suan Dioscorea alata
adbt, ckl, (K) mkol (=alp mkol), (G) mokol kinds
add Vaccinium keysseri
adlup, dlep Cypraea annulus Cypraea annulus shells and necklaces
admaw, admaw lkañ, aŋmd, awel, bitbit, glaŋm, gum, kceki sblam, kmn sblam, ñg-pakn, plin, sblam, sskanay, yb, ymeb-bd Cordyline varieties
adom, awayŋ, bangol, gaygay, guglak, kas-pat, kawel, msagay, msu, pkay, pnm, ssalkay, walb, wanay, wlak, yamganmtob Alpinia sp. or spp.
adug, cecey, ceycey Pseudeos fuscata
aglg, camaŋ, cebey, cemen, dot, spel, wayam, wls, ygam marita (pandanus) kinds
aglog Leucosyke sp.
agnoŋ Syzygium pachycladum
agnoŋ; jbl = jbul, jbul kas-at-ket, jbul kas ñluk, jbul kub tŋi = jbul kub-tŋi-ket, jbul lkañ, jbul tun, jeŋn, jjelŋ = jjlŋ Syzygium spp.
agol Podocarpus archboldii
ajn, kalap ajn Balanophora sp.
ajok, gb Australimusa variety
akañ Coix lacryma-jobi
akl Nastus spp., Racemobambus sp., Schizostachyum sp.
aklaŋ, añ, atwak, gabi, kñm, madaw, magey, maygot, sbi, takp, yaked, yng-tud kinds
aklaŋ, gabi
aklaŋ; aklaŋ awl-kas-ket, aklaŋ pk, gabi, takp Phalanger maculatus
akm-gi Halfordia kendack
akow, ktu Areca catechu
alad, cmgan, kiwak, klwak, saymon kinds
alad, klwak, kob, sg, tabal
aleg Solanum americanum
aleg alomn Dicliptera papuana
aljm, aybiskes Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
alkn aydk, kamay alkn Piper triangulare
alkn jejen Piper gibbilimbum
alkn kuysek Piper subbullatum
alkn yb = alkn ybl Piper sp.
alks Melomys frigicola ?; Melomys rufescens
alks Melomys rufescens grassland Melomys rat
aln Phascolosorex dorsalis
aln, as aln Antechinus melanurus
alnay, ytem = ytm Pandanus adinobotrys
alŋ, alŋ lkañ Eulalia trispicata grass, Eulalia trispicata
alŋaw, salm Medinilla sp.
alŋaw, spagep, (PL) mukut, (PL) sagitap, spagep Pandanus brosimos generic
alŋaw-nm Melidectes belfordi schraderensis
alp generic
alp, madan, jan madan Dobsonia moluccensis
als Kibara sp., Steganthera hirsuta
al-wj, gulwj, kabapk
amos aydk, molom, palm, saŋañ
amos, buk Lagenaria siceraria
añb, kl = kli, kodpab, kolay, malŋ, malŋ pk Rungia klossii cultivated kinds
aneŋ, kob, yagab marita (pandanus) generic
anŋes Triumfetta nigricans
aŋmip, klŋan
aŋmt Milvus migrans
apay, bljan, cabak, dlep, gaslŋ, gengen, glgl, gojmay, jak, jlgu, mdaj, mkut, pagi, mokub, peñl, sbkep, sklek, sml, tbep, wsp Pandanus brosimos kinds
as Abeomelomys sevia
askum, kabay askom, gokal
as-magi, jjmd Rhododendron macgregoriae
asŋap Ischaemum polystachyum
asŋap lkañ Ischaemum sp.
asŋap, gaj, gubodm, guñ, kabapk, kapn, kaynam, kodkem, kol, kusal = kusay, mokol, molad, molay, plp, sben, tkol, ttpak Saccharum edule kinds
ass, gog, gog Saurauia sp. or spp.
atwak; añ, beŋ-tud Phalanger sericeus
awleg lek Garnotia stricta
aymows, kajben, (Asai) yegaŋ Petaurus breviceps
ayŋ numud Solanum oliverianum
ayŋ, wdawd Dimorphanthera spp.
ayplow Polygonum nepalense
aypoki ksen-nep owp Conyza parva
aypoki, sbomj Conyza bonariensis
aypot, kuom
aywol Thysanolaena maxima
bajj Erythrura trichroa
bal Macaranga rufibarbis
bal generic
bal, bljan, bljan kas-pat, peyj, sapol, sapol mseŋ-ket, sapol semeñ-tin, suosu, weñgaw Macaranga spp.
balbag Desmodium repandum
balpon Arthrophyllum macranthum
bangay Cucurbita spp.
bata Persea americana
batt Senna septemtrionalis
bawd Manihot esculenta
baynap Ananas sativus
bblaw Merops ornatus
bbomol, bbomol aydk Palmeria sp.
bc, dŋ
bdabd Phyllanthus flariflorus
bdoŋ, ksks mature male
bed, kmn-gd Gleichenia sp.
beg Perrottetia alpestris
bep, (PL) pesel Rungia klossii generic
biay, gmeñ
binmuŋ Ascarina subsessilis
bitbit, gtigti Crotalaria lanata
blc Dactylopsila palpator
bleb Gallicolumba beccarii
blegñ Geniostoma sp.
bley, bleynm Aepypodius arfakianus
bljan kas-pat Macaranga induta
bodi Embelia cotinoides
bodi, muglpen Maesa spp.
bokbak Commelina cyanea
bopl Imperata cylindrica, etc.
bot, ddblŋ Dennstaedtia scandens
btud Phaseolus vulgaris
buk galab Melicope sp., Prunus sp. or spp.
buk mataw, gabaw, mataw, ñoŋud kas-ps Cryptocarya spp.
calab bwow, gojayab = gojeyab phasmids kinds
cangom, gabaw, ñepek, pagn ñepek, ps-tkn, waŋ-magi, wokd Cyrtandra sp. or spp.
ccp generic
ccp kamay-ket Accipiter melanochlamys
ccp mseŋ-ket Accipiter fasciatus
ccpen, tden Desmodium sequax
cedmay
celed, kamay celed Nothofagus grandis
celed, kamay, kamay kas-ñluk, kamay kaskam, kamay ydlum Nothofagus sp. or spp.
cgem Dolichos lablab, Lablab purpureus
cgoy Nicotiana tabacum
cgoy aydk Cynoglossum sp.
cgoy numd
cm
cmnm Urena lobata
cocwoñ
codok Psychotria hollandiae
codok kas ñluk Drimys sp.
codok, codok kas-ps, m-ypl Psychotria sp. or spp.
cp-asŋap, kaynam Ischaemum barbatum
cp-nabgu Hydnophytum sp. or spp.
cp-nabgu Peltops montanus mountain peltops flycatcher
cp-sgi Ricinus communis
cp-tamu, tamu Paspalum conjugatum, Paspalum sp.
cptmel bojm, pubnm
cuklm Galium subtrifidum
dagol Scincella stanleyana
dak, patow
daŋb Rapanea spp., Tasmannia piperita
daŋb aydk Ardisia sp.
daŋb, gojb, gtkep, mes Timonius sp. or spp.
db Dacrydium novoguineense
dinm, dinum Leucanthus peduncularis
dinum acb Hydrocotyle sp.
dkbn Sterculia monticola
dmŋawt kosbol Circus spilonotus
dŋ; bic Lonchura spectabilis
dob
dobeg, wlek–ñŋeb Coniogramme macrophylla
dog Neonauclea obversifolia
dsn Diplazium latilobum
dsn, gañgal, sspi, yuley Elatostema sp. or spp.
duk Harpyopsis novaeguineae
gabaw Litsea spp.
gabjen Sloania nymanii
gablog Smilax sp.
gac Megalurus timoriensis
gac, kolay, sgaw, sgaw tmd, slb Rungia klossii uncultivated kinds
gad, tukum Wendlandia paniculata
gadmab, godmab, gadmab b-tepsek, gamñ Ptilinopus ornatus
gadon Nastus elatus
gagn Ficus dammaropsis
gaks, kolem, pd kolem Dioscorea bulbifera generic
galkañ yb Maoutia sp.
galkneŋ female and immature male
gam Saccharum officinarum
gamgam Osmoxylon boerlagi
gaml, gaml kl Saccharum spontaneum
gañgal, jjeyp kuysek, sspi Pilea sp.
gaslŋ Neopsittacus musschenbroekii
gaygay, gugolŋ, msagay, ymgenm-tob Riedelia sp.
gayk Erythrina orientalis
gd Sticherus brassii
gd, lps Glochidion sp. or spp.
gepgep Nyctimystes foricula
get, get kab, get yb, goñbl Aglaia spp.
get, goñbl Dysoxylum spp.
ggamaŋ Solanum dammerianum
ggan Piptocalyx sp.
ggayaŋ
gglñ Isachne sp., Lachnogrostis sp.
gis, kamay-gis Neopsittacus pullicauda
gkt, kon, mays Zea mays generic
gldb, golbd mñ Tecomanthe volubilis
glegl, ? skey
glegl; dob Falco berigora
glmd, kapal, yawed, ydam
glob, gokob, molop
gluj, kabapk
gmeñ, biay Psitteuteles goldiei
goblad, goblad yob, kuyopi Microsorum musifolium
god, god-gayaŋ, ? kaj-numd Accipiter meyerianus
god, kaj-wsd
godd, wtay godd
godmay-ket Charmosyna wilhelminae
godmg, ñabap Parahydromys asper
gogadŋ
gogaŋ = gugaŋ Lepidoptera generic
gogiben Piper celtidiforme
gojagen Curcuma longa
gojmet, salkay Etlingera sp.
golbd mñ Pandorea pandorana
golŋ Daphniphyllum papuanum
golyad Melidectes torquatus
goñbl Rorippa schlechteri
goñbl, goñbl gtan Brassica napus
goñŋn Breynia collaris
goñŋn, goñŋn mseŋ-ket Colubrina sp.
goyaŋ Geitonoplesium cymosum
goym, jamay, juk Araucaria sp.
gtkep, as gtkep Pogonomys sylvestris, Paramelomys rubex
gtkep, kamay gtkep, mes, mes tud Pittosporum spp.
gtkep, mes gtkep Timonius belensis
gubodm Ficus eustephana
gugolŋ Riedelia geluensis
gugubay Cypholophus sp., Solanum sp.
gulbalk, m aydk, sanp Colocasia esculenta taro, wild
gulgul, galkneŋ Epimachus fastosus
gulgul, kalaj male
gul-ws
gumdoŋ = gmdoŋ Ficus gracillima, Ficus pantoniana, Ficus subulata
gumgum Probosciger aterrimus
gumon Fagraea amabilis
gumon pidol Corynocarpus cribbianus
guŋ, nogob Pipturus sp. or spp.
gupñ Homalanthus nervosus
gupñ kasp Homalanthus novoguineensis
gupñ, gupñ gapnay, gupñ kasp, kamay gupñ Homalanthus spp.
gupñ-magi-ket
gusal = gusay Dodonaea viscosa
jaj Diplazium asperum
jamad = jmad Gardenia lamingtonii
jbjel
jbjel, galkneŋ Epimachus meyeri
jbnog Hemigraphis sp.
jbnog, jbog Phyllanthus sp.
jbog, kdkd Charmosyna pulchella
jeŋn Streblus spp., Streblus glaber, Streblus urophyllus
jeptpt, jeptpt-nap Eugerygone rubra
jes Commersonia bartromania
jjabi Adenostemma viscosum
jjak, kmn jsp, kmn Glomera sp.
jjb Dendrobium sp.
jjelŋ Decaspermum bracteatum, Myrtaceae sp. or spp.
jjgayaŋ, kotleg Grallina bruijni
jjoj, sataw
jlgol, jjgol Schoenus sp., Scirpus sp., Scleria sp.
jlgu Semecarpus sp.
jlgu, jlgol Carex sp. or spp.
jm, kalap jm Dacrydium novo-guineense
jm, kalap jm, mon jm Gymnostoma papuanum
jmad
jnal, pkay, wsnaŋ Alphitonia spp.
jobol, jogob, wonm Eurya tigang
jogal Angiopteris erecta
jogal, kamay jogal Marattia werneri
jolbeg generic
jolbeg Rhipidura atra
jolbeg mosb Rhipidura atra adult male
jolbeg, (K) jolbeg pk, (G) jolbeg pok Rhipidura brachyrhyncha
joli Tanysiptera galatea
joŋ generic, including most Orthoptera
jop Artabotrys vriesianus, Elaeagnus triflora
jsp Arthraxon ciliaris, Eragrostis brownii, Garnotia sp.
jsp, kmn, kmn jsp Mediocalcar spp.
kabacp Dendrolagus sp.
kabapk
kabay bl, kabay albad, kabay cgaŋ adult male
kabay bl, kabay cgaŋ, kabay kl Lophorina superba
kabay mosb, kabay gs, kabay kawslwog, kabay mosaj, kabay sbtkep Cnemophilus loriae
kabay pk, kabay pk mluksu female and immature males
kabay wog-dep Parotia lawesii
kabi Lithocarpus sp. or spp.
kabkal, maklek Uromys caudimaculatus
kablamneŋ, kmn-bl, kmn-wm
kabpet, kuyŋ kabpet; ŋetŋet Coturnix chinensis
kackac Artamus maximus
kadŋ kl
kadŋ, kadŋ kl, kl, sugulbeñ, wad-kl orb-weaver spiders
kaganm Corvus tristis
kagap, pagap Phaseolus lunatus
kaj yglu Ophiuros exaltatus
kaj-kut Ficus adenosperma, Ficus erythrosperma
kaj-meg, (K) kosod-yakt, (G) kosad yakt Cisticola exilis
kaj-pab, pab Broussonetia papyrifera
kaj-ypl-si-dak, koptt, yptt Ducula zoeae
kalap db, skp Dacrycarpus imbricatus
kalap, mabs Casuarina oligodon
kalay Bidens pilosa
kalom Bixa orellana
kamay Nothofagus pullei
kamay gupñ Homalanthus arfakiensis
kamay mumjel
kamay ydlum Nothofagus pseudoresinosa
kamay-nolb
kamok Pneumatopteris papuana
kañm Musa sp. or spp.
kañm, klwak mature female
kaŋ nonm, kaŋ nop, spsp
kapi Phragmites karka
kapi bleb
kapi kñopl snipe bird
kapis Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, Spinacia oleracea
kapn snm Celosia argentea
kasan, kaskam Arachis hypogaea
kaskam Melicope triphylla, Melicope vitiflora, Melicope xanthoxyloides
kaskam aydk Melicope denhamii, Melicope durifolia, Melicope trachicarpa
kaskam aydk, kaskam kuysek Melicope aneura
kaskam mataw Melicope pachypoda
kaskas
katgn Rattus niobe small mountain rat
katmap Brassica oleracea
kawen Ipomoea alba
kawkaw Solanum tuberosum
kawl; alu, waym Artocarpus communis
kawseb, kawsi, kawsl Impatiens hawkeri
kawsl-wog, kawsilog Melampitta lugubris
kaydok Rhodomyrtus lanatus
kayn-sabi, sabi aydk, sabi lkañ, sabi tud, ttpak Setaria palmifolia kinds
kayn-yng Selaginella sp. or spp.
kayŋay, ? skp Schefflera boridiana, Schefflera megalantha
kaywl; kalaj Aceros plicatus
kb Pycnopygius cinereus
kb kluneŋ, kej, kojway Meliphaga subfrenata
kbaŋm, namluk, pok-lakep Freycinetia sp. or spp.
kb-bokbok Jaspinum sp.
kben, kubap kben, mnan kben Acorus calamus
kben, mnan kben Dianella sp.
kbogl Glochidion novoguineense
kb-slk Meliphaga spp.
kceki sblam, (PL) awkem Cordyline ledermanni
kceki si, si kck Laportea decumana
kdiplŋ Ficus endochaete
kel Calyptrocalyx sp.
kgomn Blumea arnakidophora
ki, wan Ptiloprora guisei
kinm Dimeria ciliata
ki-numd, gupñ-magi-ket Pachycephala leucostigma
kitañ Crassocephalum crepidioides, Erechtites valerianifolia
kiwos Nyctimystes disruptus
kjkj Benincasa hispida
kkask bd Rubus rosifolius
kkask, tgos Rubus spp.
klen Phaseolus sp., Planchonella spp., Planchonella macropoda
klen, klen-bd
kleykley, ytem-kleykley Monarcha axillaris
klop Cardamine sp.
kls Lobulia stanleyana
klwak-db = kulwak-db Pothos sp.
kmn gad Sticherus pseudoscandens
kmnnumud, sñeñ skoy
kms, kumŋañ Caryota sp., Gronophyllum sp. or spp.
kñ Stephania montana
kñes Eleocharis attenuata
kñopl Scolopax saturata
kob mature
kob, saymon
kob-bg-ket
koben Goura victoria
kobkaknaŋ web of tetragnathid spider
kobti Casuarius bennetti
kobti agal Pteris tripartita
kobti gulgin Casuarius unappendiculatus
kocb Uncaria bernaysii
koct, koct amam, koct b-tepsek, koct btep badsek Ptilinopus rivoli bellus
kodal, mglak
kodlap Elaeocarpus womersleyi
kodojp Elaeocarpus firmus, Elaeocarpus leucanthus
kogm Drymaria cordata
kojam, palm Trichosanthes pulleana
kolaleg
kolem aydk, pd sgoy Dioscorea spp. wild kinds
kolem, kolem aydk, kolem aydk, pd magi Dioscorea bulbifera
kolm Haliastur indus
kolp Colocasia esculenta tuber of Colocasia esculenta
komay, ymges Dubouzetia novoguineensis
komñ Sphenomorphus sp.
kon-kalay Gynura procumbens
koñmay Emilia prenanthoides, Lactuca spp., Spathoglottis sp.
koñmayd Rhipidura leucophrys
koŋak Rallicula forbesi
koŋak crakes and rails generic
koŋds Pachycephala schlegelii, Pachycephala soror
koŋds = kods Pachycephala generic
koŋds = kods
koŋds = kods generic
koŋds lkañ adult male
koŋds mseŋket adult female
koŋds todimadi, koŋds kamay-ket Pachycephala modesta
koŋds todimadi, koŋds mseŋ-ket Pachycephala rufiventris dorsalis
kopyak = kupyak, (PL) wŋbek-cad-nb Rattus exulans, Rattus niobe, Rattus ruber house rat
kopyak gulbodu Rattus ruber garden rat
kosay Ficus pungens
koslem Syzygium malaccense
kosp
kotleg
kotpek, kotpek kas-ps Prunus grisea
kotpek, mseŋ kotpek Prunus turneriana
kotpek, mseŋ kotpek, mslm Polyosma sp. or spp.
koymaŋ, kpay, kpay koymaŋ Cocos nucifera
ksks, bdoŋ Astrapia stephaniae
kuam Garcinia archboldiana
kubap, jejaw Ficus microdictya
kubul Polytoca macrophylla
kugolk Ilex sp.
kulep, kulep acb Aegotheles albertisi
kulmuŋ Trema cannabina
kulŋañ Schuurmansia henningsii
kumi, snay Pandanus julianettii
kuñp Trachymene arfakiensis
kuñp, kuñp kañp, kuñp sepeb, kuñp ygam, sepeb, wokd Oenanthe javanica kinds
kuñp-yt-ps, (K) smlsmlnap, (G) ssmulnap; ssmalam
kuŋb Amblyornis macgregoriae
kuŋub Cnemophilus macgregorii
kuŋub = (K) kuŋb
kuŋub lkañsek mature male
kuŋub neb female and immature male
kuom
kuptol kuysek Arrhenechthites novoguineensis
kutwal = kotwal Pademelon
kutwal = kotwal Thylogale brunii
kuwŋ Synoicus ypsilophorus
kuwt
kuwt sapol-kod, kuwt yb Macropygia nigrirostris
kuwt tun Macropygia amboinensis
kuyn Cyathea magna
kuyn Cyathea generic
kuyŋ Synoicus ypsilophorus
kuyŋ generic
kuyŋ kabpet
kuyopi = kiopi Microsorum punctatum
kuyot = kiot Mangifera sp.
kipep, kuypep kuykuy-sek Hydromys shawmayeri
kuypep, kipep, kuypep kuykuy-sek Crossomys moncktoni
layon Sechium edule
lbeñ, lbeñ kas-ps Schizomeria clemensiae, Schizomeria gorumensis
lbg Lanius schach
lokañ Pipturus argenteus
lu Timonius morobensis
m aydk Alocasia sp.
m, mi, (PL) alom, (PL) mukut Colocasia esculenta generic
m, mi; nem, sap Colocasia esculenta
mab-yb, monyb, ymn Sphagnum sp. or spp.
madaw; ket-ketm, kñm Phalanger gymnotis
magey, takp
magl-paceb Endiandra grandifolia
maj Ipomoea batatas
majown Sundacarpus amarus
mak Metroxylon sp. sago palm
maldapan Melanocharis versteri
maldapan gs, maldapan kl female
maldapan mosb adult male
maldapan todimadi
malg, ayom, aywom Gymnophaps albertisii
mamag Solanum aviculare
mamŋ Sphenomorphus darlingtoni
mamŋ tud Polygonum chinense
mamŋ, mamŋ lkañ, pelŋ, tipeñ Begonia sp. or spp.
mañmod Prasinohaema flavipes
mayap
mayap Psittacella brehmii
mayap Psittacella madaraszi ?
maygot, ? yng-tud Phalanger carmelitae
maykop Dicksonia hieronymi
mem, mem aydk, mem sgi Plectranthus spp.
mem, mem tud Salvia sp. or spp.
memneŋ Melipotes fumigatus
memneŋ Scaevola oppositifolia
meŋñ Flindersia pimenteliana
mes Pittosporum ramiflorum
mgoñm Maclura cochinchinensis
mimot
mkal, kubap Aglaonema sp. or spp.
mluk-ps
mmali Piper sp. or spp., Piper macropiper
mmañp Collocalia esculenta
mmañp, sskl Collocalia hirundinacea
mñ kkask Rubus moluccanus
mnan magi Cypraea sp.
mnŋej Nertera granadensis
mŋay Ficus nodosa, Ficus variegata
molok bokad Spiraeopsis brassii
molok kab Acsmithia parvifolia, Pullea glabra
molok kas at-ket, molok smgep Opocunonia nymanii
mosak Mallomys aroaensis
mosak gam, kmn gam Epiblastus sp.
mosak puŋ Aristolochia sp.
mosak; aloñ, kabkal, maklek Mallomys rothschildi
mtmñ Peperomia sp.
mug, as mug Mammelomys lanosus
mug; moys Melomys lorentzii, Melomys platyops
mugsi, tu-kapl, tu-meg
mum Podargus papuensis great Papuan frogmouth, giant frogmouth
mumjel, mumjel kñŋsek Ninox theomacha
mumloj Myrmecodia schlechteri anthouse plant
mumuk Hyomys goliath
mumyaŋ
m-ypl Mussaenda cylindrocarpa
namluk Freycinetia bismarckensis, Freycinetia schraderensis, Freycinetia tafarensis, Freycinetia vulgaris
namluk sgaw-tud Freycinetia rectangularis
ñay Salvadorina waigiuensis
nbon, mñ-nbon Pipturus pullei
ñgñolom Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus
ñgog-pagog Motacilla cinerea
ñg-otok
nm Morelia amethistina
ñmeg Diplazium decompositum
ñmlm Equisetum debile horsetail plant
ññalu Claoxylon spp.
ñŋay Pueraria lobata
nol Melidectes rufocrissalis
ñom pk, sin pk Natrix mairii ?
noman, tumd Phyllocladus hypophyllus
ñoŋud kuysek, ñoŋud kojow Cinnamomum archboldianum
ñopd Pteridophora alberti
ñopd kolman mature male
ñopd neb female and immature male
ñopd, kolman
nugsum = ñgsum Microglossa pyrifolia
ŋetŋet
ŋoŋi
pakam Peroryctes raffrayana
pd magi Dioscorea bulbifera tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera, aerial
pelŋ Symbegonia spp.
pelŋ, tipeñ Begonia kanienis
peñbin, pen-ñbin, majabin, najabin Phylloscopus trivirgatus
piaw, tman, tmen Calamus sp.
pimakol Lobulia elegans
pipiben Lycopodium cernuum
pkaŋ, yabay pkaŋ female or immature male
plag Clytoceyx rex
plŋ Peneothello cyanus
plŋ, wet
plolom Halcyon megarhyncha
plolom Halcyon sancta
pluan, pulwan Melodinus australis
pñepk Toxorhamphus poliopterus
pnes Microeca papuana
pobol Typha orientalis
polmaŋ Holochlamys beccarii
popo paypay Carica papaya
pow Aegotheles insignia
pow generic
pubnm, sbyaŋ, lum suwn
pugtek Elmerrillia papuana, Magnolia palmifolia
sabi Setaria sp., Setaria palmifolia generic
sag Cucumis sativus generic
sag aydk Neoachmandra filipes, Urceodiscus belensis
sag jamay, sag tud kinds
sagal Alstonia macrophylla
sagal Tyto tenebricosa
saglom Davallia sp.
salm core of mountain pandanus fruit
sanp Alocasia nicolsonii taro, wild
sapol Macaranga strigosa
sapol semeñ-tin Macaranga intonsa
sawey Castanopsis acuminatissima
sawñ Cyclosorus sp. or spp.
sbal; m kiap, kokmay, kudu Xanthosoma sagittifolium taro, kongkong taro
sbaw Cacomantis variolosus
sbaw numud, ? sdweymadwey Chalcites ruficollis
sbaw, sbaw mseŋ-ket, kamay sbaw Cacomantis pyrrhophanus
sbaw, sbaw numd
sbdalem Wikstroemia androsaemifolia
sbi, ? sgoy Dioscorea esculenta
sbi, yaked Phalanger sp.
sblam Cordyline fruticosa
sblam, (PL) awkem Cordyline generic
sbn, ? aleg Solanum nigrum
sbos Lycopodium sp. or spp.
sd, sud, yŋleb Miscanthus floridulus swordgrass
señŋ Sericornis nouhuysi
señŋ blwen male
señŋ mluk-su female and immature males
señŋ tmd-bad-sek, señŋ mluk-su Eulacestoma nigropectus
señŋ tmud-badsek adult male
sep Myzomela adolphinae
sep myzomela and mistletoebirds generic
sep bis, sep bj female and immature male
sep kalom adult male
sep kalom, sep bis, sep bj Myzomela rosenbergii
sep maj-ks-ket, sep mumloj-kab-ket mistletoebirds
sep mumlojkab-ket, sep maj-magi-ket Dicaeum geelvinkianum
sep-mumlojkabket
sg Papuan lory, melanistic form of
sgaw
sgdalem Zanthoxylum conspersipunctatum
sgoglek Octamyrtus behrmanii
si ydmuŋ, mon ydmuŋ Dendrocnide morobensis
si, si kck, si gidmit = si godpit, si godpl, si lkañ Laportea
sidn Prasinohaema prehensicauda
siŋ Apistocalamus sp., Natrix montana ?
sj; awj, mduwn Abelmoschus manihot
sjaŋ Rattus verecundus
sjwey, sjweywey Gerygone cinerea, Gerygone ruficollis gerygone tree warbler
skayag Tyto capensis
skek Sericornis perspicillatus
skek, skek kalom
sklek Helicia sp. or spp.
skoyd; boñay Pseudochirulus forbesi
skp; ? kalap db Dacrycarpus imbricatus
skub, skub goblad, bojm-pkep Henicopernis longicauda
sloj Malurus alboscapulatus
smlsmlnap, kuñp-ptps Machaerirhynchus nigripectus
snb Zingiber officinale
sñeñ Coracina montana
sñeñ cuckooshrikes generic
sñeñ saki, sñeñ skoy Coracina longicauda
sñeñ swalwal, sñeñ suwalwal Coracina caeruleogrisea
sog Finschia spp.
sogan Myristica subulata
som Sphaerostephanos sp.
soy-tum Emoia caeruleocauda lizard found in lowlands
spi Albizia falcataria, Paraserianthes falcataria
splep
spsep Daphoenositta miranda
spsep Micropsitta bruijnii
ssabol Carpodetus arboreus
sskl Collocalia whiteheadi
sskl Hirundo tahitica
sskl Nothocnide melastomifolia
ssnb Clematis papuasica
sspi Aceratium parvifolium, Sericola micans, Sorghum nitidum
suatg Dasyurus albopunctatus New Guinea quoll, marsupial cat
sueg Pachycephala rufinucha
sueg bulweñ, sueg bulweñsek
sugulbeñ Nephila maculata
sugun Garcinia schraderi
sukñam Papuacedrus papuana
sulwal Parasponia rigida
sumsum Cercartetus caudatus
suosu Macaranga rhodonema
tabal; alad, cmgan, kañm, kob, ? sg Charmosyna papou phases
tadap Garcinia lauterbachiana
takp Spilocuscus maculatus
tay
tbum = tubum Schefflera simbuensis, Schefflera straminea
tdagl Gunnera macrophylla
tgs lkañ Acalypha sp.
tgs, tgs aygs Acalypha hellwigii
tlum Sloanea archboldiana, Sloanea tieghemii, Sloania aberrans
ttamañ Elaeocarpus schlecterianus
ttmiñ Rhipidura atra
ttpak Astronia ledermannii ?
ttpel, ttpey
tubum Schefflera hirsuta
tubumkab-ket generic
tubum-kab-ket Oreocharis arfaki
tubumkabket kl female
tubumkab-ket klwak male
tubum-kab-ket nonm Paramythia montium
tumuk-as, as tumuk-as Lorentzimys nouhuysi jumping tree mouse, arboreal mouse
tuos = tuwos Ipomoea indica
tuos kas ñluk, kaywos Ipomoea cairica
tuos, tuos kas ñluk
tuwŋ Centropus phasianinus
waknaŋ mñ Sabia pauciflora
walcegon small rat, found near homesteads
walgañ, walgañ kas–ps Symplocos cochinchinensis
wal-kobneŋ Zosterops novaeguineae
walm Croton morobensis
waln Harmsiopanax ingens
wanay Chisocheton tenuis
wanay kasps Aphanamixis polystachya
wask, kamay wask Ficus iodotricha
waym Artocarpus incisa
waymn Reinwardtoena reinwardtsi
wbl; akan
wcm; (K) puŋimdep, (G) puŋi-mdep; wlpog Pseudochirops corinnae
wdn-ñg Oreopsittacus arfaki
weñgaw Macaranga pleioneura, Macaranga pleiostemona
wet Poecilodryas albonotata
wgi; amgln, weñem Microperoryctes longicauda
wlmeñ Saxicola caprata
wlmeñ saki Peneothello sigillatus
wlmn saw Rhamnus nepalensis
wobwob
wogdep, kabay cgaŋ adult male
wogñalam Caprimulgus macrurus
wogu kas ñluk Parsonsia sp.
womay Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
wopkay Melastoma cyanoides, Otanthera sp.
wopkay ñluk Osbeckia chinensis
wopkay yb Melastoma malabathrica
wopwop Piper subpeltatum
wtay Cacatua galerita
wtwt Conus litteratus circular disk of Conus litteratus shell
yabagal
yabagay
yabal = yabay, pkaŋ Paradisaea minor
yabol, yabol guldak = guldak yabol
yagad; aneŋ, kob Pandanus conoideus
yakt-gu Sphenostemon papuanum, Sphenostemon pauciflora
yam Ficus stellaris
ybelŋ Diplycosia morobeensis, Rhododendron multinervium, Vaccinium sp.
ybelŋ tud Rhododendron vitis-idaea
ybelŋ, kamay ybelŋ Rhododendron phaeschitum
ybug, ybug pañpañ Acronychia montana
ydam, yawed, kapal ps Psittrichas fulgidus
ydmañ Vaccinium albicans
ygesk Buddleja asiatica
yglu Arundinella setosa
ygu Dryadodaphne crassa
yluŋ Ficus trichoserasa
yman
ymañŋn pl-pat Hemiprocne mystacea
ymduŋ Trimenia papuana
ymduŋ; bald, kagm, kas-gs, kay, tglem-tud Pseudochirops cupreus
ymgenm = yamganm, beŋtud, gtkep Pogonomys sylvestris
ymgenm, as ymgenm Pogonomelomys mayeri
ymgenm-tob Pleuranthodium sp.
ymges Elaeocarpus nubigena, Elaeocarpus polydactylus
ymges kodlap Elaeocarpus gardneri
ymges, ksaks Elaeocarpus altigenus ?
ymges, ymges kas ñluk, ymges kolac, ymges ksaks Elaeocarpus sp. or spp.
yñ generic
yñ km, yñ sidn km Scincella prehensicauda
yokal Galbulimima belgraveana
yow Olearia platophylla
yppok
yuak Philemon novaeguineae

Semantics

Colors

Kalam speakers distinguish more than a dozen color categories.[8]

Time

Pawley and Bulmer (2011), quoted in Pawley and Hammarström (2018), lists the following temporal adverbs in Kalam.[9] [8]

Morphology

Rhyming compounds

Kalam, like English, has different types of rhyming compounds.[9]

alternating consonants
addition of consonants
alternating vowels

See also

References

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Papua New Guinea languages . Ethnologue

    Languages of the World

    . 22nd . Eberhard . David M. . Simons . Gary F. . Fennig . Charles D. . 2019 . Dallas . SIL International.
  2. Book: Majnep . Ian Saem . Ian Saem Majnep . Bulmer . Ralph . Ralph Bulmer . illustrations by Christopher Healey . 150, 152 . Birds of my Kalam Country . Mn̄mon Yad Kalam Yakt . 1977 . Auckland University Press . New Zealand . 9780196479538 . en . 251862814.
  3. Typological Implications of Kalam Predictable Vowels. julietteblevins.ws.gc.cuny.edu. Juliette. Blevins. Andrew. Pawley.
  4. Pawley . Andrew . Andrew Pawley . 2012 . History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages . Language & Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue 2012: Part I . 0023-1959 . Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea . Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea . Hammarström . Harald . van den Heuvel . Wilco . How reconstructable is proto Trans New Guinea? Problems, progress, prospects . 88–164. 1885/38602 .
  5. Note: Data in Pawley (2012) is drawn from Pawley and Bulmer (2011).
  6. Bulmer, Ralph N.H. and Michael Tyler. 1968. Karam classification of frogs. Journal of the Polynesian Society 77(4): 621–639.
  7. Bulmer, RNH (1975). Kalam Classification Of Reptiles And Fishes. Journal of the Polynesian Society 84(3): 267–308.
  8. Pawley, Andrew and Ralph Bulmer. 2011. A Dictionary of Kalam with Ethnographic Notes. Canberra. Pacific Linguistics.
  9. Book: Pawley . Andrew . Hammarström . Harald . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Trans New Guinea family . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 21–196 . 978-3-11-028642-7.

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