Kaffir lime explained

Citrus hystrix, called the kaffir lime, Thai lime or makrut lime, is a citrus fruit native to tropical Southeast Asia.[1] [2]

Its fruit and leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisine, and its essential oil is used in perfumery.[3] Its rind and crushed leaves emit an intense citrus fragrance.

Names

"Kaffir" is thought to ultimately derive from the Arabic kafir, meaning infidel, though the mechanism by which it came to be applied to the lime is uncertain. Following the takeover of the Swahili coast, Muslims used the term to refer to the non-Muslim indigenous Africans, who were increasingly abducted for the Indian Ocean slave trade, which reached a height in the fifteenth and sixteenth century.

The most likely etymology is through the Kaffirs, an ethnic group in Sri Lanka partly descended from enslaved Bantu.[4] The earliest known reference, under the alternative spelling "caffre" is in the 1888 book The Cultivated Oranges, Lemons Etc. of India and Ceylon by Emanuel Bonavia, who notes, "The plantation coolies also smear it over their feet and legs, to keep off land leeches; and therefore in Ceylon [Sri Lanka] it has also got the name of Kudalu dchi, or Leech Lime. Europeans call it Caffre Lime."[4] [5] Similarly, H.F. MacMillan's 1910 book A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Planting notes, "The 'Kaffir Lime' in Ceylon."[4] [6]

Another proposed etymology is directly by Indian Muslims of the imported fruit from the non-Muslim lands to the east to "convey otherness and exotic provenance."[4] Claims that the name of the fruit derives directly from the South African ethnic slur "kaffir" (see "South Africa" below) are not well supported.[4]

C. hystrix is known by various names in its native areas:

கொலுமிச்சை in Kongu Tamil[10]

The micrantha, a similar citrus fruit native to the Philippines that is ancestral to several hybrid limes, such as the Key lime and Persian lime, may represent the same species as C. hystrix, but the genomic characterization of the kaffir lime has not been performed in sufficient detail to allow a definitive conclusion.[12]

South Africa

In South Africa, the Arabic kafir was adopted by White colonialists as "kaffir,"[4] an ethnic slur for black African people.[13] Consequently, some authors favour switching from "kaffir lime" to "makrut lime," a less well-known name, while in South Africa, it is usually referred to as "Thai lime".[14] [15]

Description

C. hystrix is a thorny shrub or small tree, 6to tall, with aromatic and distinctively shaped "double" leaves.[16] These hourglass-shaped leaves comprise the leaf blade plus a flattened, leaf-like stalk (botanically, a winged petiole). The fruit is rough and green and ripens to yellow; it is distinguished by its bumpy exterior and small size, approximately 4cm (02inches) wide.[17] The fruits have thick skins (pericarps) and taste very acidic and slightly bitter.[18] Flowers can have four to five petals that are white in color and are fragrant.[19]

History

Pierre Sonnerat (1748–1814) collected specimens of it in 1771–72, and it appears in Lamarck's Encyclopédie Méthodique (1796).[20] [21]

Makrut lime appears in texts under the name of kaffir lime in 1868, in Ceylon, where rubbing the juice onto legs and socks prevents leech bites.[22] This could be a possible origin of the name leech lime.

Uses

Culinary

C. hystrix leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisines such as Indonesian, Laotian, Cambodian, and Thai. The leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant, fresh, dried, or frozen. The leaves are widely used in Thai cuisine[23] [24] (for dishes such as tom yum) and Cambodian cuisine (for the base paste "krueng").[25] The leaves are used in Vietnamese cuisine to add fragrance to chicken dishes and to decrease the pungent odor when steaming snails. Also, in Vietnamese villages that harvest silkworms, the silkworms in the pupa stage are stir fried with the kaffir lime leaves.[26] The leaves are used in Indonesian cuisine (especially Balinese cuisine and Javanese cuisine) for foods such as soto ayam and are used along with Indonesian bay leaf for chicken and fish. They are also found in Malaysian and Burmese cuisines.[27]

The rind (peel) is commonly used in Lao and Thai curry paste, adding an aromatic, astringent flavor. The zest of the fruit, referred to as combava, is used in creole cuisine to impart flavor in infused rums and rougails in Mauritius, Réunion, and Madagascar.[28] In Cambodia, the entire fruit is crystallized/candied for eating.[29]

Medicinal

The juice and rinds of the peel are used in traditional medicine in some Asian countries; the fruit's juice is often used in shampoo and is believed to kill head lice.[17]

Other uses

The juice is used as a cleanser for clothing and hair in Thailand[24] and occasionally in Cambodia. Lustral water mixed with slices of the fruit is used in religious ceremonies in Cambodia.

Makrut lime oil is used as raw material in many fields, including pharmaceutical, agronomic, food, sanitary, cosmetic, and perfume industries. It is also used extensively in aromatherapy and as an essential ingredient in various cosmetic and beauty products.[30]

Cultivation

C. hystrix is grown worldwide in suitable climates as a garden shrub for home fruit production. It is well suited to container gardens and for large garden pots on patios, terraces, and in conservatories.

Main constituents

The compound responsible for the characteristic aroma was identified as (–)-(S)-citronellal, which is contained in the leaf oil up to 80 percent; minor components include citronellol (10 percent), nerol and limonene.

From a stereochemical point of view, it is remarkable that makrut lime leaves contain only the (S) stereoisomer of citronellal, whereas its enantiomer, (+)-(R)-citronellal is found in both lemon balm and (to a lesser degree) lemon grass, (however, citronellal is only a trace component in the latter's essential oil).

Makrut lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil; its main components are limonene and β-pinene.[3] [31]

Toxicity

C. hystrix contains significant quantities of furanocoumarins, in both the peel and the pulp.[32] Furanocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis,[33] a potentially severe skin inflammation. Cases of phytophotodermatitis induced by external use of C. hystrix have been reported.[34]

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Citrus hystrix . Flora & Fauna Web . National Parks Singapore, Singapore Government . 13 August 2018.
  2. Web site: Citrus hystrix . Plant Finder . Missouri Botanical Garden . 13 August 2018.
  3. Ng, D.S.H. . Rose, L.C. . Suhaimi, H. . Mohamad, H. . Rozaini, M.Z.H. . Taib, M. . 2011 . Preliminary evaluation on the antibacterial activities of Citrus hystrix oil emulsions stabilized by TWEEN 80 and SPAN 80 . International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences . 3 . Suppl. 2 . 2014-12-10 . 2018-04-12 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180412213816/http://ijppsjournal.com/Vol3Suppl2/2007.pdf . dead .
  4. Web site: Anderson . L. V. . Is the Name Kaffir Lime Racist? Why You May Want to Think Twice About Using That Term. . Slate Magazine . 1 May 2021 . en . 3 July 2014.
  5. Book: Bonavia . Emanuel . The cultivated oranges and lemons, etc. of India and Ceylon, with researches into their origin and the derivation of their names, and other useful information. With an atlas of illustrations . 1888 . W. H. Allen & Co . London . 309 .
  6. Book: Macmillan . Hugh Fraser . A handbook of tropical gardening and planting with special reference to Ceylon . 1910 . 157 . H. W. Cave & Co. . Colombo, Ceylon .
  7. purut. A Malay-English dictionary (romanised). Wilkinson. Richard James. Salavopoulos & Kinderlis. Mytilene. 1932. II. 291. TROVE.
  8. Web site: pann. 2019-04-07. Apa itu purut?. 2020-09-02. Glosarium Online. id-ID.
  9. Book: CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology. M-Q. 2012-01-01. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. 9781439895702. en.
  10. Web site: Citrus hystrix DC. Species. 2021-12-07. India Biodiversity Portal. en.
  11. Web site: Katzer . Gernot . Kaffir Lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) . Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages . 13 August 2018.
  12. Book: Citrus taxonomy . Ollitrault . Patrick . Curk . Franck . Krueger . Robert . The Citrus Genus . Talon . Manuel . Caruso . Marco . Gmitter . Fred G Jr. . Elsevier . 2020 . 57–81 . 9780128121634 . https://books.google.com/books?id=2wo4swEACAAJ&pg=PA57 . 10.1016/B978-0-12-812163-4.00004-8. 242819146 .
  13. Web site: 2014-06-23. Veronica . Vinje . Saying "kaffir lime" is like saying the N-word before "lime". 2023-02-07. The Georgia Straight. en.
  14. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/common-lime-name-has-racist-history-1.2698863 Common lime name has racist history
  15. Web site: Kaf·fir also kaf·fir. American Heritage Dictionary. 18 September 2017.
  16. Book: Kumar, Kuntal. The Original Organics Cookbook: recipes for healthy living. 1 January 2008. TERI Press. 978-81-7993-155-4. 54.
  17. Book: George. Staples. Michael S.. Kristiansen. Ethnic Culinary Herbs: A Guide to Identification and Cultivation in Hawai'i. 1 January 1999. University of Hawaii Press. 978-0-8248-2094-7. 27–29.
  18. Web site: jian ye cheng . Citrix hystrix in Flora of China . 11 February 2023 .
  19. Web site: Citrus hystrix - Plant Finder . 2024-04-19 . www.missouribotanicalgarden.org.
  20. Limau Hantu and Limau Purut. the Story of Lime-Leaves (Citrus hystrix DC, Rutaceae)?. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. 54. 2002. 185–197. D. J. MABBERLEY. 12 March 2022.
  21. Book: Bonavia . Emanuel . The cultivated oranges and lemons, etc. of India and Ceylon, with researches into their origin and the derivation of their names, and other useful information. With an atlas of illustrations . 1888–90 . W. H. Allen . London . 309 . 31 May 2021.
  22. Book: Henderson . John (capt. 78th Highlanders.) . Skeet . Ch. J. . The History of the Rebellion in Ceylon During Lord Torrington's Government: Affording a Comparison with Jamaica and Governor Eyre . 1868 . University of Minnesota . 58 . 31 May 2021 .
  23. Web site: Loha-unchit. Kasma. Kaffir Lime –Magrood. December 7, 2014.
  24. News: Sukphisit. Suthon. Clean up in kitchen with versatile fruit. 13 November 2017. Bangkok Post. 12 November 2017.
  25. Web site: What to Replace Kaffir Lime Leaves With. 2018-12-17. Village Bakery. en-US. 2018-12-19.
  26. Web site: How Mountains Of Worm Cocoons Are Turned Into Expensive Silk In Vietnam Big Business . .
  27. Book: Wendy Hutton. Wendy. Cassio. Alberto . Handy Pocket Guide to Asian Herbs & Spices. Periplus Editions. Singapore. 40. 978-0-7946-0190-4. 2003.
  28. News: Mauritian rum has a distinct character to it: Sweeter and smoother. The Economic Times. 2015-03-22.
  29. Dy Phon Pauline, 2000, Plants Used In Cambodia, printed by Imprimerie Olympic, Phnom Penh
  30. Techniques for essential oil extraction from makrut lime and its application in health care products—A review. 10.1002/ffj.3626. 2021. Suresh. Anuja. Velusamy. Sangeetha. Ayyasamy. Sudha. Rathinasamy. Menaha. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 36. 5–21. 226314486.
  31. Kasuan. Nurhani. Extraction of Citrus hystrix D.C. (Kaffir Lime) Essential Oil Using Automated Steam Distillation Process: Analysis of Volatile Compounds. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. 17. 3. 359–369. 2013.
  32. Dugrand-Judek . Audray . Olry . Alexandre . Hehn . Alain . Costantino . Gilles . Ollitrault . Patrick . Froelicher . Yann . Bourgaud . Frédéric . The Distribution of Coumarins and Furanocoumarins in Citrus Species Closely Matches Citrus Phylogeny and Reflects the Organization of Biosynthetic Pathways . PLOS ONE . November 2015 . 10 . 11 . e0142757 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0142757 . 26558757 . 4641707. 2015PLoSO..1042757D . free .
  33. The Electronic Textbook of Dermatology . Botanical Dermatology . McGovern . Thomas W. . Barkley . Theodore M. . Section Phytophotodermatitis . Internet Dermatology Society . 2000 . 37 . 5 . 10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00385.x . 9620476 . 221810453 . November 29, 2018.
  34. Koh . D. . Ong . C. N. . Phytophotodermatitis due to the application of Citrus hystrix as a folk remedy . Br J Dermatol . April 1999 . 140 . 4 . 737–738 . 10233333 . 10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.02782.x. 45603195 .

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