Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps Explained

The Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC, commonly pronounced) is a federal program sponsored by the United States Armed Forces in high schools and also in some middle schools across the United States and at US military bases across the world. The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act.

Role and purpose

According to Title 10, Section 2031[1] of the United States Code, the purpose of the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps is "to instill in students in [the United States] secondary educational institutions the values of citizenship, service to the United States, and personal responsibility and a sense of accomplishment." Additional objectives are established by the service departments of the Department of Defense. Under 542.4[2] of Title 32 (National Defense) of the Code of Federal Regulations, the Department of the Army has declared those objectives for each cadet to be:

Section 524.5[3] of the CFR National Defense title states in part that JROTC should "provide meaningful leadership instruction of benefit to the student and of value to the Armed Forces. ...Students will acquire: (1) An understanding of the fundamental concept of leadership, military art and science, (2) An introduction to related professional knowledge, and (3) An appreciation of requirements for national security. The dual roles of citizen/soldier and soldier/citizen are studied. ... These programs will enable cadets to better serve their country as leaders, as citizens, and in military service should they enter it. ... The JROTC and NDCC are not, of themselves, officer-producing programs but should create favorable attitudes and impressions toward the Services and toward careers in the Armed Forces."

The military has stated that JROTC will inform young Americans about the opportunities available in the military and "may help motivate young Americans toward military service."[4] A 1999 Army policy memorandum stated that "While not designed to be a specific recruiting tool, there is nothing in existing law that precludes ... facilitating the recruitment of young men and women into the U.S. Army," directing instructors to "actively assist cadets who want to enlist in the military [and] emphasize service in the U.S. Army; facilitate recruiter access to cadets in JROTC program and to the entire student body ... [and] work closely with high school guidance counselors to sell the Army story."[5]

In a February 2000 testimony before the House Armed Services Committee, the armed service chiefs of staff testified that 30% - 50% of graduating JROTC cadets go on to join the military:

General Colin Powell said in his 1995 autobiography that "the armed forces might get a youngster more inclined to enlist as a result of Junior ROTC," but added that "Inner-city kids, many from broken homes, found stability and role models in Junior ROTC."[7] U.S. Congress found in the Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 that JROTC and similar programs "provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces, including significant public relations benefits."[8] Former United States Secretary of Defense William Cohen referred to JROTC as "one of the best recruitment programs we could have."[9] [10]

Organization

Six of the eight branches of the Uniformed services of the United States maintain a Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, organized into units. There are a total of 3,275 units:

Prior to 1967 the number of units was limited to 1,200. The cap was increased to 1,600 units in 1967 and again to 3,500 units in 1992; the statutory limitation on the number of units was struck from the law in 2001.[18] [19] Their goal was to reach 3,500 units by February 2011 by encouraging program expansion into educationally and economically deprived areas.[20]

Units are set up according to the layout of their parent service, often referred to as the "Chain of Command."[21] [22] Army JROTC units follow a company (usually the period the class is held in), battalion (all periods), and at larger events brigade (multiple battalions) structure. Marine Corps JROTC units follow the battalion, or in cases of larger size, brigade structure. Air Force JROTC units are composed structurally based on size. Individual if one, detail if 2, element if more than 2 and no more than 8, flight if 26, squadron if more than 51, group if more than 101, and wing if more than 251 cadets. Navy JROTC typically follows the company (100-149 cadets), battalion (150-299 cadets), or regiment (300+ cadets) structure depending on the size of the unit.

JROTC funding

JROTC is partly funded by the United States Department of Defense with an allocation in the military budget of about $340 million dollars for the fiscal year 2007, of which about 68 million are personnel costs.[23] The federal government subsidizes instructor salaries, cadet uniforms, equipment and textbooks. The instructors, usually retired military personnel, continue to receive retirement pay from the Federal government, but in addition, the schools pay the difference from what the instructors would receive if they were on active duty. The service concerned then reimburses the school for approximately one-half of the amount paid by the school to the instructor.

DoD Budget[24] FY 2007FY 2008FY 2009
AJROTC128,281146,147149,329
NJROTC45,41147,84450,494
MCJROTC17,42316,99617,740
AFJROTC77,90194,760108,730
Total U.S. $1,000269,016305,747323,293
Note: Space Force JROTC funding is included in Air Force JROTC.[25]

Military staff and instructors

Although active duty officers may be assigned to JROTC, this is exceedingly rare, and is primarily limited to staff at the major command or sub-command headquarters overseeing each service's respective JROTC program or regional administrators overseeing a set number of individual units. Unlike the college/university ROTC program, which is an actual military officer training and accession track, the vast majority of NJROTC instructors are retired from the sponsoring branch of the Armed Forces. In the Army JROTC program, the cadet unit at each school is directed by at least one retired commissioned officer in the grade of Captain through Colonel) or a Warrant Officer (WO1 through CW5) who is designated as the Senior Army Instructor, and who is assisted by at least one retired Non-Commissioned Officer in the grade of Staff Sergeant through Command Sergeant Major who is designated as an Army Instructor (AI). In certain situations, there may be additional instructors.[26]

A new provision from the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540) that was signed into law in October 2006 permits retired Reserve Component officers and noncommissioned officers to be hired as instructors.

There are no national requirements that JROTC instructors have the teaching credential required by other teachers in public high school, although there are a handful of counties that do require a teaching credential.[27] In at least one jurisdiction (California), the government requires JROTC instructors to have at least four years of military experience and possess a high school diploma or equivalent.[28] AJROTC instructors need to be within one year of retirement or retired from active military service for five or fewer years. MCJROTC instructors need to have graduated from high school, have at least 20 years of active military service and be physically qualified according to Marine Corps standards.[29]

AFJROTC previously required a minimum of 20 years of active duty but has since been overridden by a provision in the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540), signed into law in October 2006, permitting retired Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard officers and noncommissioned officers) to be hired as instructors. Officer instructors need to have a minimum of a bachelor's degree, while a high school diploma or equivalent is sufficient for enlisted instructors.

For AJROTC the Non-commissioned Officer has to attain an associate degree (AA), with teaching credential, in order to be assigned an AI. To be assigned as a SAI the AJROTC Instructor has to hold a BA degree, with teaching credentials.[30]

NJROTC also required a minimum of 20 years of active duty until it was overridden by a provision in the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540), signed into law in October 2006, permitting retired Reserve Component personnel (e.g., U.S. Navy Reserve officers, chief petty officers and petty officers) to be hired as NJROTC instructors. The minimum education requirement for an enlisted Naval Science Instructor (NSI) is a high school diploma or equivalent, with a baccalaureate degree from an accredited college or university required for a commissioned officer to serves as a Senior Naval Science Instructor (SNSI).[31] The Navy requires that JROTC instructors be employees of the school or school district and that they are accorded the same status as other school faculty members.[32]

National Defense Cadet Corps[33] (NDCC) offers similar programs as JROTC. NDCC units differ from JROTC in that they receive little or no financial support from the Armed Forces; uniforms, equipment, other materials and instructor salaries must normally be furnished by the school hosting an NDCC program.[34] Except for the funding aspects, JROTC and NDCC programs are virtually identical, although the cadet corps is not limited by the federal statute that restricts JROTC to offering courses only for students in ninth through 12th grades.[35] Per 2005, Chicago had 26 Middle School Cadet Corps enlisting more than 850 students.[36]

Instruction and activities

The Code of Federal Regulations states that JROTC is "designed for physically fit citizens attending participating schools."[37] In public schools, JROTC is usually an elective course with membership limited to US citizens and legal foreign nationals, those who will graduate with their 9th-grade cohort, and have not experienced an out of school suspension during the preceding six-month period. Often, students who participate for one year receive credit in lieu of a physical education class. Students who excel in the first year of JROTC can apply for a second year. Most schools offer three to four years of JROTC training.

Boarding schools or (pre-college) military schools may offer JROTC programs, with some requiring participation as a condition for acceptance to the school. Some public military schools mandate JROTC as a class for all grade levels, and have a curriculum that includes military history, military protocol, civics, and physical fitness. Chicago has six public military academies, more than any other city and one-third of all in the country.[38]

The JROTC program stresses military discipline,[39] [40] with a curriculum that emphasizes study of military science and military history.[41] Cadets typically wear their uniforms once or twice a week, usually standing for inspection, with the exception being those cadets who attend a JROTC-based military academy. Their creed encourages conduct that brings credit to family, country, school and the corps of cadets, loyalty, citizenship and patriotism.[42] Many cadets participate in extracurricular activities such as the following:

The most notable JROTC marching band is the Virginia 91st Air Force Junior ROTC Band of the Randolph-Macon Academy.[44] Being a rare part of a JROTC unit, there are few in existence, with the state of Texas only boasting two units with marching bands.[45]

There are other extracurricular activities that the JROTC's programs provide for their cadets, including trips to military installations, ROTC college programs, and other sites that give the cadets a look at the military community. During the school year, there are regional competitions between JROTC units, with testing in all areas of military, naval and aerospace science. Some units organize special visits to US military bases during school breaks. There are also many summertime "leadership academies" for cadets hosted by various military installations.[46] These academies include the JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB), and JROTC Cadet Leadership Challenge (JCLC), a physical fitness competition.[47]

Cadets may be awarded ribbons, ribbon devices, medals and aiguillettes for participation in JROTC and team activities, as well as for personal academic and athletic achievement and leadership. Awards may be presented by organizations other than the cadet's JROTC program, such as other JROTC programs, Military Officers Association of America, American Veterans, Order of the Daedalians, American Legion, and the National Rifle Association of America.[48] Ribbons and medals are positioned in order of precedence, as prescribed by the Cadet Field Manual and the senior JROTC instructor.[49]

Some units also host an annual formal military ball (mess dress) and formal dinner. Usually, awards are presented. Female cadets are generally excused from wearing the dress uniform for military ball. Sometimes units also have a separate awards ceremony, which is attended by the instructors, guests, and parents. Fraternal organizations, such as the American Legion, often give out awards for military excellence, academics, and citizenship, in addition to the standard awards given by the JROTC program. The year may be finished with a change of command ceremony, where the new unit commander, executive officer, and other unit officers are named and take command from the current officers. Mid-level officers are also named. Some units choose the next year's NCO and junior officer corps based on officer and NCO candidate schools, usually held immediately following the end of the school year.

Successful completion of a JROTC Program (1–3 years of classes) can lead to advanced rank upon enlistment in the Armed Forces.[3] [50] For example, upon completion of three years of Air Force JROTC, cadets may at their instructor's discretion enlist in the Air Force at the rank of Airman First Class (E-3). However, JROTC participation incurs no obligation to join the military.[3]

A JROTC unit (through the Senior Instructor) may recommend current JROTC cadets for nomination to the Service Academy of the unit's branch. JROTC units designated as Honor Units may nominate up to three cadets to the Service Academy of any branch, in addition to the nominations to the unit's own branch academy.

Competitions

Leadership and Academic Bowl

The JROTC Leadership and Academic Bowl (JLAB) is a national academic competition which is the largest of its kind for high schools in the country. There are three levels of the competition, which units who complete levels 1 and 2 successfully attending the last level at Catholic University of America in Washington D.C.[51] Subjects that are covered in all three levels include history, literature, current events and JROTC curriculum.[52] [53] Depending on the represented branch, there may be 4-8 cadets representing a school.[54] Aside from Cadet Command, the competition is also sponsored by the College Options Foundation.

National High School Drill Team Championship

Established in 1982, the National High School Drill Team Championship is a joint-service exhibition drill competition for JROTC drill teams, held in Daytona Beach, Florida. Although it has been held since 1982, it only became an officially service-based sanctioned event when the U.S. Army Cadet Command became the sponsor in 1988.[55] [56]

Cadet Creeds

In every branch of the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, there is a branch creed that every cadet in their designated branches must remember.

Army Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps Cadet Creed

I am an Army Junior ROTC Cadet.

I will always conduct myself to bring credit to my family, country, school, and the Corps of Cadets.

I am loyal and patriotic.

I am the future of the United States of America.

I do not lie, cheat, or steal, and will always be accountable for my actions, and deeds.

I will always practice good citizenship and patriotism.

I will work hard to improve my mind and strengthen my body.

I will seek the mantle of leadership and stand prepared to uphold the Constitution and the American way of life.

May God grant me the strength to always live by this creed!

Hooah!

Marine Corps Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps Cadet Creed

I am a Marine Cadet.

I will be true to myself and to others.

I will not lie, cheat, or steal.

I will serve my school, community, and nation.

I will wear my uniform with pride.

I will do my personal best at all times.

I will honor those who have gone before me: the Few, the Proud, the Finest.

Oorah!

Navy Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps Cadet Creed

I am a Navy Junior ROTC cadet.

I strive to promote patriotism and become an informed and responsible citizen.

I respect those in positions of authority.

I support those who have defended freedom and democracy around the world.

I proudly embrace the Navy's core values of Honor, Courage and Commitment.

I am committed to excellence and the fair treatment of all!

Air Force Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps Cadet Creed

I am an Air Force Junior ROTC Cadet.

I am connected and faithful to every Corps of Cadets who served their community and nation with patriotism.

I earn respect when I uphold the Core Values of Integrity First, Service Before Self, and Excellence In All We Do.

I will always conduct myself to bring credit to my family, school, Corps of Cadets, community, and to myself.

My character defines me. I will not lie, cheat, or steal. I am accountable for my actions and deeds.

I will hold others accountable for their actions as well. I will honor those I serve with, those who have gone before me, and those who will come after me.

I am a Patriot, a Leader, and a Wingman devoted to those I follow, serve, and lead.

I am an Air Force Junior ROTC Cadet!

Coast Guard Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps Cadet Creed

I am proud to be a United States Coast Guard JROTC Cadet.

I revere that long line of Splendid Coasties who, by their devotion to duty and sacrifice, have made it possible for me to be associated with a service honored and respected throughout the world.

I never, by word or deed, will bring disgrace upon the name of the U.S Coast Guard.

I will cheerfully fulfill my commitments and obligations and shall endeavor to do more, rather than less, than my share.

I will always act with integrity and be respectful.

I shall endeavor to be a model citizen in the community in which I live in.

I shall endeavor to be a noble work, living by the Coast Guard's core values: Honor, Respect, and Devotion to Duty!

Awards and decorations

Army Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps

Bronze Oil Lamp
Signifies second award of a ribbon.
Silver Oil LampSignifies third award of a ribbon.
Gold Oil LampSignifies fourth award of a ribbon.

Air Force Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps

Career military who were members of JROTC

Many members of JROTC go on to have careers in the United States Armed Forces as they are twice as likely to enlist than other high school students.[60] Some notable former members of JROTC include:

Controversy

There has been controversy about JROTC and militarism in schools.[7] The American Friends Service Committee, the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors (CCCO), Veterans for Peace,[66] War Resisters League,[67] and the Project on Youth and Nonmilitary Opportunities, actively oppose the JROTC for a number of reasons, including:

The Coalition For Alternatives to Militarism in Our Schools, formed by more than 50 teachers in the Los Angeles Unified School District,[71] aims to "eliminate the Junior Reserves Officer Training Corps in our High Schools."[72] Many cases of abuse by JROTC instructors, as well as credentialing issues, and of having students forced into JROTC due to lack of space in physical education classes have been noted in Los Angeles Public Schools.[73] The group claims 2006 showed a reduction in JROTC enrollment in Los Angeles, with a drop of one-third or approximately 1,500 students, suggesting part of the explanation is efforts to stop the involuntary enrollment of students into JROTC.[74] At Roosevelt High School in the Boyle Heights section of Los Angeles, a local campaign against JROTC cut the number of cadets 43 percent in four years, with a JROTC instructor reporting a 24 percent drop in enrollment from 2003–04 to 2006-07 for the rest of the Los Angeles unified School District.[75]

In October 2005, the New York Civil Liberties Union pressured Hutchinson Central Technical High School in Buffalo, New York to release students from a mandatory JROTC program, arguing that the practice violates the State's Education Law, which provides that no child may be enrolled in JROTC without prior written parental consent.[76]

In May 2008, the American Civil Liberties Union stated that JROTC violates the United Nations sponsored Convention on the Rights of the Child by targeting students as young as 14 for recruitment to the military.[77] The United States has not ratified the convention, although it has ratified an optional protocol to the Convention on "the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict."[78] However, recruiting is not an official goal of JROTC, as stated in United States Code pertaining to the program.[79]

Sexual harassment and assault of JROTC cadets by instructors is reported to have occurred in the program, and some instructors have been criminally charged in relation to these crimes. Lack of oversight and the minimal training required for instructors have been cited as factors contributing to this problem.[81] In 2023, Congress approved new rules that require the JROTC program to have increased oversight in the management and reporting of misconduct and sexual abuse allegations.[82]

Some school districts in the U.S. have essentially mandated the JROTC program for high school programs, despite DoD guidelines requiring the program to be elective. These mandates affect students of racial minorities disproportionately.[83]

See also

Other similar U.S.-based organizations

Youth-based, non-ROTC organizations include:

References

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Videos

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: 10 U.S. Code § 2031 - Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps . Legal Information Institute.
  2. Web site: Title 32; Section 542.4: Objectives . Electronic Code of Federal Regulations . 2007-11-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110613061727/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=4bdb7e9e2e103bb491610facd149d462&rgn=div8&view=text&node=32:3.1.1.3.17.0.13.4&idno=32 . 2011-06-13 . dead.
  3. Web site: Title 32; Section 524.5: Policies . Electronic Code of Federal Regulations . 2007-04-12 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070930204407/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=f1b0121929cc5ab074e1fea890753646;rgn=div8;view=text;node=32:3.1.1.3.18.0.13.5;idno=32;cc=ecfr . 2007-09-30 . dead.
  4. Web site: US Army Posture Statement FY01 Chapter 5: Meeting the Recruiting Challenge . . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20061227095250/http://www.army.mil/aps/aps_ch5_2.htm . 2006-12-27.
  5. Web site: Cadet Command Policy memorandum 50 . 1999-03-30 . United States Army Cadet Command . 2006-12-29 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060912205653/http://www.projectyano.org/pdf/JROTC_military_recruiting_memo.pdf . September 12, 2006 . live.
  6. Web site: H.R. 4205 - Hearings on National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2001 before the Committee on Armed Services . 42 . February 10, 2000 . House of Representatives . https://web.archive.org/web/20001229141956/http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/security/has041000.000/has041000_0f.htm . December 29, 2000 . live.
  7. Class Warfare . Stodghill . Ron . March 4, 2002 . . 2006-12-30 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20071118220204/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001927,00.html . November 18, 2007.
  8. Web site: Text - H.R.4208 - 106th Congress (1999-2000): Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 . Kay . Granger . July 19, 2000 . U.S. Congress.
  9. Web site: School: A place to teach or to recruit? . Huet-Vaughn . Emiliano . September–December 2001 . 10–11 . The Human Quest . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070928092411/http://www.thehumanquest.org/sept-oct/school.pdf . 2007-09-28.
  10. Web site: Child Soldiers Global Report 2001 - United States of America . Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers . 2001 . 2010-08-25.
  11. Web site: Army Junior ROTC History . . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130208100945/https://www.usarmyjrotc.com/jrotc/dt/2_History/history.html . 2013-02-08.
  12. Web site: AFJROTC History . Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools . 2006-12-29 . July 23, 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060723024010/http://www.afoats.af.mil/AFJROTC/history.asp . dead .
  13. Web site: NJROTC Basic Facts . United States Navy Naval Service Training Command . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070629002717/https://www.njrotc.navy.mil/basicfacts.cfm . 2007-06-29.
  14. Web site: History of Marine Corps JROTC Program. United States Marine Corps JROTC. 2006-12-29. July 23, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110723173329/http://www.mcjrotc.org/about/history.aspx. dead.
  15. Web site: Riggs . Joshua . Space Force JROTC . 2023-02-28 . Alabama JROTC . en-US.
  16. Web site: Space Force JROTC to Get First Units Starting This Fall . 2021-03-22 . Air Force Magazine . en-US . 2021-03-25.
  17. Web site: JROTC Units . United States Coast Guard . 2021-03-25.
  18. Web site: 10 USC Chapter 102 - Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps, Sec. 2031 Amendments . January 15, 2013 . The US Code . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130707205406/http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/10c102.txt . 2013-07-07.
  19. Web site: Title 10 § 102 . Legal Information Institute . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060923132655/http://www4.law.cornell.edu/ . 2006-09-23.
  20. Web site: Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps Assessment . 2006 . The White House . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20120916000117/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/omb/expectmore/detail/10003233.2006.html . 2012-09-16.
  21. Web site: Chain of Command & Battalion Staff . 2009-06-11 . Furr High School NJROTC . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110607023745/http://hs.houstonisd.org/Furrhs/AJROTC/Chain_of_Command.html . 2011-06-07.
  22. Web site: Chain of Command . 2009-06-11 . Port Charlotte High School NJROTC.
  23. Web site: Operation and Maintenance Overview Fiscal Year (FY) 2007 Budget Estimates . February 2006 . Office of the Secretary of Defense . 2006-12-29.
  24. Web site: Department of Defense Budget Fiscal Year 2009 . February 2008 . Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller) . 2011-05-03.
  25. Web site: Congressional Research Service Reports - General National Security . 2023-02-28 . sgp.fas.org.
  26. U.S. Department of the Army. (2000). Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps Program Organization, Administration, Operation, and Support: Army Regulation 145-2.
  27. Web site: JROTC Officers . American Friends Service Committee . 2007-04-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070419134900/http://www.afsc.org/youthmil/militarism-in-schools/JROTC-instructors.htm . 2007-04-19.
  28. Web site: Designated Subjects Special Subjects Teaching Credentials (Leaflet CL-699) . January 2004 . California Commission on Teacher Credentialing . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20061207093050/http://www.ctc.ca.gov/credentials/leaflets/cl699.html . 2006-12-07.
  29. Web site: Instructor Application – Background Information . Marine Corps Junior ROTC Program . 2012-08-14 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070728065938/http://www.mcjrotc.org/Documents/instinfo.doc . 2007-07-28.
  30. Web site: Prerequisites for AFJROTC Instructor Duty . 3 January 2006 . Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools . 2007-04-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060310074639/http://www.afoats.af.mil/AFJROTC/Instructors.asp . 2006-03-10.
  31. Web site: NJROTC Training . 2007 . Navy Junior Reserves Officers' Training Corps . February 4, 2016 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070629002624/https://www.njrotc.navy.mil/appcertproc.cfm . June 29, 2007.
  32. Web site: School Administrator Guidelines for Hiring NJROTC Instructors . August 2001 . United States Navy Naval Service Training Command . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090510173455/https://www.njrotc.navy.mil/hiringguid.cfm . 2009-05-10.
  33. Web site: National Defense Cadet Corps . Army Dictionary (N) . 2006-12-14 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060722111234/http://www.afms1.belvoir.army.mil/dictionary/n_terms.htm . 2006-07-22 .
  34. Web site: Title 32: National Defense § 542.7 Program information . Electronic Code of Federal Regulations . 2007-04-24 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070930153900/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=f1b0121929cc5ab074e1fea890753646;rgn=div5;view=text;node=32:3.1.1.3.18;idno=32;cc=ecfr#32:3.1.1.3.18.0.13.7 . 2007-09-30 . dead.
  35. News: Claire . Schaeffer-Duffy . National Catholic Reporter . Feeding the military machine: JROTC expansion and inner-city academies mark recruiting incursion into U.S. public school classrooms, critics say . 2003-03-28 . 2007-04-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070228180616/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_21_39/ai_99849547 . 2007-02-28.
  36. Jennifer . Wedekind . The Childrens Crusade . 2005-06-05 . . 2007-04-24 . December 20, 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20061220044412/http://www.inthesetimes.com/site/main/article/2136/ . dead .
  37. Web site: Title 32: National Defense Part 542 — Schools and Colleges . Electronic Code of Federal Regulations . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100531185205/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5714de76896a25122bb44a86b8c06411&rgn=div5&view=text&node=32:3.1.1.3.15&idno=32#32:3.1.1.3.15.0.11.5 . 2010-05-31.
  38. No JROTC Left Behind . Allen . McDuffee . 2008-08-20 . In These Times . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081109114738/http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3855/no_jrotc_left_behind/ . 2008-11-09.
  39. For more about the regulations relating all personnel (including cadets) to military command authority, see: Book: U.S.Army . Army Command Policy (unclassified) – Five Components of Fitness [Step by step] ]. Department of the Army . 2006 . Headquarters . AR 600-20 . Online Personal Trainer . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20181216033658/https://www.onlinepersonaltrainer.in/five-components-of-fitness-step-by-step/ . 2018-12-16.
  40. For historical context for many military customs, from ceremonies to activities forbidden by force of observed custom, as such customs are adopted by individual JROTC units under mentorship of instructors on their retirement from active duty, see Book: Bonn, LTC Keith E. . Army Officer's Guide . 49th . Stackpole Books . 2002 . 0-8117-2649-5.
  41. Web site: JROTC Syllabus . Online Personal Trainer.
  42. Web site: JROTC Creed History . Online Personal Trainer . 2007-10-17 . https://archive.today/20121217232426/https://www.usarmyjrotc.com/jrotc/dt/3_Creed/history.html . 2012-12-17 . dead.
  43. Web site: CMP Develops New JROTC Marksmanship Instructor Course . Dale . Miles . April 2005 . Civilian Marksmanship Program.
  44. Web site: Band . Randolph-Macon Academy.
  45. Web site: JROTC . Central Catholic High School.
  46. Book: Military History and Professional Development: Suggestions to Units and Formations . 1985 . Combat Studies Institute . U. S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas . 85-CSI-21 85 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210619223423/https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat-studies-institute/csi-books/military.pdf . June 19, 2021 . live.
  47. Web site: JROTC History . JROTC . 2018-06-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20180624232746/https://www.usarmyjrotc.com/JROTC_history.html . 2018-06-24.
  48. Book: Cadet Field Manual: NAVEDTRA 37116-H . A Field Manual for the Navy Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps: 0509-LP-110-2131 . Naval Education and Training Command . United States Department of the Navy . 8th . June 2010 . Precedence of Order of Seniority . July 15, 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190256/http://www.riverheadnjrotc.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/cfm2010.pdf . July 15, 2011.
  49. Book: Cadet Field Manual: NAVEDTRA 37116-Hl . A Field Manual for the Navy Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps: 0509-LP-110-2131 . Naval Education and Training Command . United States Department of the Navy . 8 . June 2010 . Awards and Decorations . July 15, 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190256/http://www.riverheadnjrotc.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/cfm2010.pdf . July 15, 2011.
  50. Book: U.S. Army . Active and Reserve Components Enlistment Program . Department of the Army . Washington, D.C. . 2011 . AR 601-210 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120617004410/http://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/pdf/r601_210.pdf . 2012-06-17. See paragraph 2-18, "Enlistment pay grades for personnel without prior Service". Students who complete 1 or more years of JROTC may enlist at pay grades E-2 (PV2) or E-3 (PFC).
  51. Web site: Academic Competitions . JROTC.
  52. Web site: 2019-2020 JROTC Leadership & Academic Bowl . Marine Corps JROTC.
  53. Web site: JLAB expands minds, leadership skills of JROTC Cadets . U.S. Army.
  54. Web site: Quiz Bowl . Project . Caruso . Cofcontests.com.
  55. Web site: National High School Drill Team Championship . JROTC.
  56. Web site: National High School Drill Team Championships . thenationals.net.
  57. Web site: NJROTC Ribbons and Criteria . Duluth High School NJROTC.
  58. Web site: MIL-DTL-11589: Ribbon, at Sea Cruise, NJROTC . ASSIST.
  59. Web site: Air Force Junior ROTC Ribbon Chart . 1 August 2018 . Edl.io.
  60. Web site: Army leaders weigh expanding JROTC in high schools . Kyle . Rempfer . 7 November 2019 . Army Times.
  61. Web site: Parker . J. Michael . Central Catholic Trio Who Died on Tarawa Remembered . Today's Catholic . October 20, 2013 . November 21, 2008 . [...] Bordelon, the ROTC battalion major during his senior year in 1937-38, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor six years later for his extraordinary heroism and determination in leading men despite several serious wounds. [...].
  62. Web site: First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez, USMC (Deceased) . Who's Who in Marine Corps History . . September 23, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110615094924/http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/HD/Whos_Who/Lopez_B.htm . 2011-06-15 . dead.
  63. News: Steele . Kathy . Memorial, display to honor war hero . South Tampa News & Tribune . Tampa, Florida . September 9, 2009 . https://archive.today/20120714081802/http://southtampa2.tbo.com/content/2009/sep/09/st-memorial-display-to-honor-war-hero/ . dead . July 14, 2012 . September 23, 2009.
  64. News: West Point Mourns a Font Of Energy, Laid to Rest by War . Partlow . Joshua . Parker . Lonnae O'Neal . September 27, 2006 . . October 20, 2013 . [...] From early on, she wanted to be a soldier, her friends recalled, and she became wing commander of Junior ROTC at Oxon Hill. [...].
  65. Web site: ASNF . 27 May 2019 . AllenWestTX . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20210116061943/https://allenwesttx.com/asnf/ . 2021-01-16.
  66. Web site: Veterans For Peace National Resolutions (Updated January 2013) . Veterans For Peace . "That VFP opposes Junior Reserve Officer Training (JROTC) in the public schools of the U.S. and calls for their discontinuance." and "Veterans For Peace National encourages its members to work with like minded organizations and people to develop resources and classes in public schools that offer alternative views of citizenship to that of JROTC.".
  67. Web site: Countering Junior Recruitment . Asif . Ullah . April 2003 . . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080114120045/http://www.warresisters.org/nva0303-3.htm . 2008-01-14.
  68. Web site: Making Soldiers in the Public Schools: An Analysis of the Army JROTC Curriculum . Lutz . Catherine . Catherine Lutz . Bartlett . Lesley . amp . April 1995 . American Friends Service Committee . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20050507003139/http://www.afsc.org/youthmil/militarism-in-schools/msitps.pdf . 2005-05-07. Reprinted in Education Digest, November 1995: 9-14.
  69. Web site: Review of the JROTC Curriculum . April 1995 . American Friends Service Committee . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070119124151/http://www.afsc.org/youthmil/militarism-in-schools/JROTC-review.htm#3 . January 19, 2007.
  70. See e.g. Army JROTC Book: Citizenship and American History . Ft. Monroe, Virginia . Department of the Army Cadet Command . 43 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070202051845/http://www.rotc.monroe.army.mil/jrotc/documents/Publications/CadetCoreTextbook4.pdf . February 2, 2007.
  71. Mr. Miller Goes to War . Pogash . Carol . April 2005 . Edutopia . 2006-12-29 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060630112925/http://edutopia.org/magazine/ed1article.php?id=art_1269&issue=apr_05 . 2006-06-30 . dead.
  72. Web site: Mission statement of the Coalition Against Militarism in the Schools . . 2007-03-21 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070610201912/http://www.militaryfreeschools.org/whoweare.htm . 2007-06-10.
  73. Web site: Review of Policy Bulletin 2067: Military Access to Schools . Arlene . Inouye . November 2005 . . 2006-12-29 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070609180157/http://www.militaryfreeschools.org/jrotc.htm . 2007-06-09.
  74. Web site: Breaking News: JROTC, Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps . Arlene . Inouye . December 5, 2006 . Coalition Against Militarism In Our Schools . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070419203444/http://www.militaryfreeschools.org/news.html . April 19, 2007.
  75. News: Activists in Calif. school district crusading against junior ROTC . Nazario . Sonia . 2007-02-25 . . Boston.com.
  76. Web site: NYCLU Pushes Buffalo High School To Release Students From Mandatory JROTC Program . October 12, 2005 . . August 28, 2013.
  77. Web site: Soldiers of Misfortune . . 2008.
  78. Web site: 11.b Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict . May 25, 2000 . United Nations Treaty Collection . August 28, 2013 . April 25, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160425032942/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-11-b&chapter=4&lang=en . dead .
  79. Web site: Marine Corps Order 1533.6E . Commandant of the United States Marine Corps . 2014-08-14.
  80. Nor is it a stated goal in each of the individual service's JROTC program mission statements.[79]
  81. News: Baker . Mike . Bogel-Burroughs . Nicholas . Marcus . Ilana . Calvert . Mary F. . 2022-07-09 . 'I Felt Trapped': Sexual Abuse of Teens in the Military's J.R.O.T.C. Program . en-US . The New York Times . 2022-07-22 . 0362-4331.
  82. News: Baker . Mike . 2023-12-15 . Congress Approves Sweeping New Protections for J.R.O.T.C. Cadets . 2024-02-18 . The New York Times . en-US . 0362-4331.
  83. Web site: December 11, 2022 . Thousands of Teens Are Being Pushed Into Military's Junior R.O.T.C. . December 4, 2023 . The New York Times.

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