Jiao (Chinese character: 郊; ; pinyin: Jiao), also known as Jiao-shang (郊商), Hang-jiao (行郊),[1] and also known as Ding-shou (頂手) and Jiu-Ba-hang (九八行),[2] was a commercial guild organization that spread throughout Taiwan during the Qing dynasty.[3] [4] The members of the organization were mostly ship merchants or merchants who settled in ports. In the middle of the Qing dynasty, the commercial function of Jiao was gradually declining due to the sedimentationof the Taiwan River mouth and the establishment of foreign businesses by Western forces after the Xianfeng dynasty.[5] However, after 1937, due to the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese War and the long-term confrontation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait after 1949,[6] the commercial function of Jiao gradually declined and had already disappeared.[7]
Most of the existing Hangjiao have been transformed into religious groups dedicated to worship Shuixian Zunwang, Mazu, or Guan Yu.
The term "Hangjiao (行郊)" originated from the "guild system" in ancient China: its prototype can be traced back to the Wei, Jin, and North–South dynasties (period: 220–589) when the term "Hang" was used to describe the gathering of commercial and commercial colonizers in cities. However, the term "Hang" actually appeared in the Sui dynasty and only matured during the Tang and Song dynasties. After the Yuan and Ming dynasties, industry organizations such as "Hang" became very popular, but their titles were not fixed, and they differed from time to time as "Hui" or "Bang". In the case of the "public offices", they are also collectively called "Gongsuo" or "Huiguang".
In the 23rd year of the Kangxi Emperor (1684), after Taiwan and Penghu were included in the territory of the Qing dynasty, immigrants from Fujian and Guangdong gradually flooded in. In response to the prevailing trend of cross-strait trade, the system of "trade associations" in their hometown was also introduced in Taiwan. To avoid vicious competition and protect their own interests,[8] most businessmen in Taiwan formed guilds with merchants from the same region, which are referred to as "Jiaoshang" or "Hangjiao" in Taiwan.[9]
The earliest written record of the word "Hangjiao" in Taiwan appeared in the "Shuixian Temple Clearance Tablet" (Tainan Shuixian Temple) erected in the 30th year of the Qianlong Emperor (1765).[10] In the 49th year of the Qianlong Emperor (1784), after the official opening of Lukang, Changhua, Taiwan and the Han River in Quanzhou, Fujian as opposite ferries, "Hangjiao" began to flourish. However, the term "Hangjiao" is only found in the southern Minnan region. Due to the fact that most Jiao merchants are shipping merchants, it is particularly prevalent in Taiwan, which relies on maritime trade.
According to research, the origin of the word "Jiao" comes from the Ming dynasty. Zhu Zhanji established the 'tax pass' in the fourth year of Xuande Emperor (1429). The subsequent Qing government continued the system of setting up checkpoints for inspection and taxation at customs, originally referred to as "customs clearance". However, "customs clearance" also had the meaning of "doing business" in the Southern Fujian language. Therefore, in the future, the use of "Jiao" in Taiwan gradually replaced "customs clearance".
"Hangjiao" is a collective term for various types of trade associations, often referred to as "chambers of commerce" during the Japanese colonial period in Taiwan. To explore the composition of commercial groups, the following table shows its division:
| Name classification | Interpretation | General example | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Selling projects | Using the same sales items as the classification standard | Youjiao | Import and export of peanut oil, sesame oil, etc. |
| Tangjiao | Import and export of sucrose, green sugar, etc. | ||
| Bujiao | Import and export of cotton, ramie cloth, jute cloth, cotton silk, etc. | ||
| Market region | Using the same regional market as a benchmark for differentiation | Taijun Jiao | The Jiao of Tainan region |
| Qianjiao | The Jiao of Hsinchu Prefecture | ||
| Xinmengquan Jiao | Xinzhuang and Mengjia's Jiao | ||
| Specific regions | Benchmarking for markets operating in specific regions | Beijiao | A general term for operating Jiao businesses in Tianjin, Yantai, Shanghai, and other places (Business scope is north of Taiwan Island) |
| Nanjiao | A general term for operating Jiao businesses in Fujian, Guangdong, Hong Kong, and other places (Business scope is located south of Taiwan Island) | ||
| Lugang Jiao | A collective term for operating Jiao businesses in various ports on Taiwan Island | ||
| Native place | Use the address standard based on the native place of the business person(Usually only a general term, often without formal organization) | Jianjiao and Minjiao | Merchants from Fujian |
| Ningjiao | Merchants from Ningbo | ||
| Shanghai Jiao | Merchants from Shanghai | ||
| Guangzhou Jiao and Guangdong Jiao | Merchants from Guangdong |
The "Hangjiao" organization is operated by "Jiao Members", who are further divided into "Lu Zhu" (爐主 in Chinese, means "Furnace owner".) and "Lu Ding" (爐丁 in Chinese, the word "Ding/丁" means "men" in general.). Before becoming a member, one has to pay a membership fee, and also indicate their detailed residence, store number, and amount of burden in the registration book to become a member of the Jiao community (also known as furnace foot). The person in charge of all affairs is the "Lu Zhu" and if a "Lu Ding" wants to leave the Hangjiao, he must first notify the "Lu Zhu" and if the "Lu Ding" violates Jiao regulations, the "Lu Zhu" also has the power to punish. In addition to the Jiao business, furnace owners highly rely on maritime safety in their commercial activities and place special emphasis on the belief in the sea god. Therefore, they must hold an annual festival to pray for good weather. They generally choose to hold the festival on the 23rd day of the third month of the lunar calendar, on Mazu Day; or on the 5th day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar, on Shuixian Zunwang Day. On the day of the gathering, the furnace owner has the obligation to report to the furnace owner the income and expenditure of that year and the status of the surrounding area, and the furnace owner may raise opinions or questions regarding the furnace owner's report.
| Jiao worker | General Jiao affairs | Furnace owner | Responsible for overseeing all business activities in the Jiao and handling sacrificial ceremonies for the year | Rotate the bamboo shoot every year |
| Director | Also known as "eader", responsible for specific businesses | Sometimes he serves as the furnace owner | ||
| Copywriter | Write written articles for various Jiao affairs | |||
| Da Zhuo | Collect money for the Jiao and carry out various official duties | |||
| Bureau Ding | Handle various miscellaneous tasks | |||
| Ceremonial assembly | Furnace owner | During the ritual gathering, it is necessary to report the income and expenditure, Jiao affairs, and other statuses of the year | Also known as "sacrificial lord" | |
| First chief | Assist the furnace owner in handling the ritual assembly | Selected from the Lu Ding | ||
| Deputy signature | Assist the furnace owner in handling the ritual assembly | Selected from the Lu Ding | ||
| Lu Ding | You must dress neatly to attend the banquet at the ceremony |
Hangjiao is a commercial organization that can only operate with funding raised by various parties. Due to the low efficiency of local governments in the Qing dynasty, it was also common for members of Jiao merchants to take over social welfare, restrain the villagers, and even contribute to the formation of militia groups and the defense of the village (such as the Lin Shuangwen rebellion and Cai Qian events, where Jiao merchants contributed to the war).[11] Therefore, the operation of Jiao funds has a significant impact on a single settlement.[12] [13]
| Contribution | Insert Lu Yin | Admission fee | During the God's Birthday celebration, all Jiao residents also need to share the cost of the celebration equally | |
| Assessment | Goods tax | Divide according to the annual distribution of goods | The main source of income in the Jiao areas | |
| Ship tax | Score based on the carrying capacity of each vessel | |||
| Property purchase | To purchase a property or storefront on behalf of Jiao and rent it out, the interest earned is usually used as public funds | |||
| Fine | Firms that violate Jiao regulations shall pay a fine, but it is non-fixed income | |||
| Annual Sacrifice | At the ceremony, the purpose of inviting performances to reward gods and gather for meals is mainly through purchasing property and generating interest. There are account books available for Hangjiao verification | ||
| Employee salary | Regular salaries for staff such as copywriters, Da Zhuo, and Bureau Ding | ||
| Official duties | Corvee service | The business that originally belonged to local officials, such as building bridges, paving roads, and cities, required the recruitment of manpower for corvee work. Jiao merchants usually paid money to offset the corvee work | |
| Social good | Local public welfare donations, such as donations for childcare centers, academies, temple incense, distribution of rice, and other public welfare undertakings | ||
| Other miscellaneous branches |
| ||
"Jiao" generally refers to a collective name, such as "Quanjiao", which can be seen in Lukang, Beigang, or Tainan. There is a "trade name" in the Jiao community, which is the trade name actually operated by businessmen. The business name "Jinshi Shun" is located in the "Quanjiao" area of Yunlin Beigang, "Jinjin Shun" is located in the "Quanjiao" area of Bang-kah, Taipei, and "Jin Chang Shun" is located in the "Quanjiao" area of Lukang, Changhua. It once had as many as 200 stores under its umbrella. In addition, due to the fact that business locations often straddle different counties, even the same trade name may be given different Jiao names in different places. Taking the trade name "Jin Changshun" as an example, it is classified as "Quanjiao" in Lukang, but "Xiajiao" in Penghu.
Before the Qing dynasty opened up Taiwan for port trade, there were many well-known Jiao commercial organizations throughout Taiwan, among which the "Tainan 3 Jiaos", "Lukang 8 Jiaos", and "Tamsui 3 Jiaos" were more well-known. The Jiao merchants also clashed with each other due to disputes over interests and differences in provincial affiliation, with the most representative being the "Top Down Jiao Competition" in the third year of Xianfeng (1853).
Although Hangjiao was a popular commercial organization during the Qing dynasty, it ultimately declined due to environmental and social changes. The reasons for its decline are as follows:
In the early days of the Taiwan under Japanese rule, the Japanese government continued to trade with Xiamen and other places in Fujian through local Jiao pipelines. It was not until the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 that the Japanese government restricted trade with China's coastal ports, which in turn affected the contraction of Hangjiao export trade volume. After 1949, there was a prolonged military confrontation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, which led to future decline and even dissolution. However, due to the frequent merging of office guilds organized by Hangjiao organizations for use in temples, a few Hangjiao organizations, such as the Penghu Shuixian Temple in Penghu and the Narcissus Palace in Tainan, still have preserved the original sacrificial functions of Hangjiao organizations to this day.[17] [18]