Medical genetics of Jews explained

The medical genetics of Jews have been studied to identify and prevent some rare genetic diseases that, while still rare, are more common than average among people of Jewish descent. There are several autosomal recessive genetic disorders that are more common than average in ethnically Jewish populations, particularly Ashkenazi Jews, because of relatively recent population bottlenecks and because of consanguineous marriage (marriage of second cousins or closer). These two phenomena reduce genetic diversity and raise the chance that two parents will carry a mutation in the same gene and pass on both mutations to a child.

The genetics of Ashkenazi Jews have been particularly well studied, because the phenomenon affects them the most. This has resulted in the discovery of many genetic disorders associated with this ethnic group. The medical genetics of Sephardic Jews and Mizrahi Jews are more complicated, because they are genetically more diverse, and therefore no genetic disorders are more common in these groups as a whole; instead, they tend to have the genetic diseases common in their various countries of origin.^[1]

Several organizations, such as Dor Yeshorim,^[2] offer screening for Ashkenazi genetic diseases, and these programs have done much, particularly by reducing the instance of Tay–Sachs disease.^[3]

History and purpose

Different ethnic groups tend to have different rates of hereditary diseases, with some being more common, and some less common. Hereditary diseases, particularly hemophilia, were recognized early in Jewish history, even being described in the Talmud.^[4] However, the scientific study of hereditary disease in Jewish populations was initially hindered by scientific racism, which was based on racial supremacism.^[5]

However, modern studies on the genetics of particular ethnic groups have the tightly defined purpose of avoiding the birth of children with genetic diseases, or identifying people at particular risk of developing a disease in the future. Consequently, some members of the Jewish community have been very supportive of modern genetic testing programs; this high level of cooperation has raised concerns that conclusions may lead to stigmatization of the Jewish community.

Genetics of Jewish populations

Most populations contain hundreds of alleles that could potentially cause disease, and most people are heterozygotes for one or two recessive alleles that would be lethal in a homozygote.^[6] Although the overall frequency of disease-causing alleles does not vary much between populations, the practice of consanguineous marriage (marriage between second cousins or closer relatives) has been common in some Jewish communities, which produces a small increase in the number of children with congenital defects.^[7]

According to Daphna Birenbaum Carmeli at the University of Haifa, Jewish populations have been studied thoroughly because:

• Jewish populations, and particularly the large Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such research studies, because they exhibit a high degree of endogamy, and at the same time are a large group.
• Jewish populations are overwhelmingly urban and are concentrated near biomedical centers where such research has been carried out.

The result is a form of ascertainment bias. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Carmeli writes, "Jews are over-represented in human genetic literature, particularly in mutation-related contexts."^[8]

This set of advantages have led to Ashkenazi Jews in particular being used in many genetic studies, not just in the study of genetic diseases. For example, a series of publications on Ashkenazi centenarians established their longevity was strongly inherited and associated with lower rates of age-related diseases.^[9] This "healthy aging" phenotype may be due to higher levels of telomerase in these individuals.^[10]

Ashkenazi diseases

Because of centuries of endogamy, today's 10 million Ashkenazi Jews descend from a population of 350 who lived about 600–800 years ago.^{[11] [12]} That population derived from both Europe and the Middle East. Some evidence shows that the population bottleneck may have allowed deleterious alleles to increase in the population by genetic drift.^[13]

This group has therefore been particularly intensively studied, and many mutations have been found to be common in Ashkenazim.^[14] Of these diseases, many also occur in other Jewish groups and in non-Jewish populations, although the specific mutation that causes the disease may vary among populations. For example, two mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene each cause Gaucher's disease in Ashkenazim, which is that group's most common genetic disease, but only one of these mutations is found in non-Jewish groups.^[3] A few diseases are unique to this group; familial dysautonomia, for example, is almost unknown in other peoples.^[3]

Genetic disorders common in Ashkenazi Jews

Disease	Subspecialty	Mode of inheritance	Gene	Carrier frequency
Favism	Medical genetics	X-linked	G6PD
	Medical genetics	Autosomal recessive	BLM	1/100
Breast cancer and ovarian cancer	Oncology	Autosomal dominant	BRCA1 or BRCA2	1/100 and 1/75, respectively
Canavan disease	Endocrinology, neurology	Autosomal recessive	ASPA	1/60
Congenital deafness	Neurology, otorhinolaryngology, audiology	Autosomal recessive	GJB2 or GJB6	1/25
Cystic fibrosis	Pulmonology, hepatology	Autosomal recessive	CFTR	1/25
Haemophilia C	Hematology	Autosomal recessive	F11	1/12
Familial dysautonomia	Neurology	Autosomal recessive	IKBKAP	1/30
Familial hypercholesterolemia	Endocrinology, chemical pathology	Autosomal dominant	LDLR	1/69
Familial hyperinsulinism	Gastroenterology, endocrinology, pediatrics	Autosomal recessive	ABCC8	1/125–1/160
Fanconi anemia C	Hematology	Autosomal recessive	FACC	1/100
	Endocrinology, neurology	Autosomal recessive	GBA	1/7–1/18
	Endocrinology, hematology, immunology	Autosomal recessive	G6PC	1/71
	Endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	MCOLN1	1/110
	Medical genetics	Autosomal recessive	SMPD1	1/90
	Endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	CPY21	1/6
	Neurology	Autosomal dominant	LRRK2	1/42^[15]
	Medical genetics	Autosomal recessive	HEXA	1/25–1/30
	Neurology	Autosomal dominant	DYT1	1/4000
	Ophthalmology	Autosomal recessive	PCDH15	1/72
Warsaw breakage syndrome	Medical genetics, pediatrics	Autosomal recessive	DDX11	1/50^[16]

Tay–Sachs disease

Tay–Sachs disease, which can present as a fatal illness of children that causes mental deterioration prior to death, was historically extremely common among Ashkenazi Jews,^[17] with lower levels of the disease in some Pennsylvania Dutch, Italian, Irish Catholic, and French Canadian descent, especially those living in the Cajun community of Louisiana and the southeastern Quebec.^[18] Since the 1970s, however, proactive genetic testing has been quite effective in eliminating Tay–Sachs from the Ashkenazi Jewish population.^[19]

Lipid transport diseases

Gaucher's disease, in which lipids accumulate in inappropriate locations, occurs most frequently among Ashkenazi Jews;^[20] the mutation is carried by roughly one in every 15 Ashkenazi Jews, compared to one in 100 of the general American population.^[21] Gaucher's disease can cause brain damage and seizures, but these effects are not usually present in the form manifested among Ashkenazi Jews; while those affected still bruise easily, and it can still potentially rupture the spleen, it generally has only a minor impact on life expectancy.

Ashkenazi Jews are also highly affected by other lysosomal storage diseases, particularly in the form of lipid storage disorders. Compared to other ethnic groups, they more frequently act as carriers of mucolipidosis^[22] and Niemann–Pick disease,^[23] the latter of which can prove fatal.

The occurrence of several lysosomal storage disorders in the same population suggests the alleles responsible might have conferred some selective advantage in the past.^[24] This would be similar to the hemoglobin allele which is responsible for sickle-cell disease, but solely in people with two copies; those with just one copy of the allele have a sickle cell trait and gain partial immunity to malaria as a result. This effect is called heterozygote advantage.^[25]

Familial dysautonomia

Familial dysautonomia (Riley–Day syndrome), which causes vomiting, speech problems, an inability to cry, and false sensory perception, is almost exclusive to Ashkenazi Jews;^[26] Ashkenazi Jews are almost 100 times more likely to carry the disease than anyone else.^[27]

Other Ashkenazi diseases and disorders

Diseases inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern often occur in endogamous populations. Among Ashkenazi Jews, a higher incidence of specific genetic disorders and hereditary diseases has been verified, including:

• Alport syndrome^[28]
• Colorectal cancer due to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer^[29]
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (nonclassical form)^[30]
• Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis^[31]
• Crohn's disease (the NOD2/CARD15 locus appears to be implicated)^{[32] [33]}
• Joubert syndrome type 2 is disproportionately frequent among people of Jewish descent; this has been attributed to the resistance to intermarriage of this population.^[34]
• Kaposi's sarcoma^[35]
• Maple syrup urine disease^[36]
• Mucolipidosis IV^[37]
• Myeloproliferative neoplasms including polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia^[38]
• Nonsyndromic hearing loss and deafness, DFNB1 (connexin 26) ^[39]
• Parkinson's disease (G2019S/LRRK2 mutation;^[40] The LRRK2 mutation on the main haplotype, shared by Ashkenazi Jews, North Africans, and Europeans, initially arose in the Near East at least 4000 years ago. Because of a founder effect, the ancestors of present-day Ashkenazi Jews may have kept the low-frequency G2019S mutation through the different diasporas, whereas Near Eastern daughter populations lost the mutation. The mutation might then have been "reintroduced by recurrent gene flow from Ashkenazi populations to other Jewish, European, and North African populations. The present-day frequency of the mutation in control populations (0.05% in Europeans, 0.5% in North-African Arabs and 1% in Ashkenazi Jews) may support this scenario".)^{[41] [42]}
• Pemphigus vulgaris^[43]
• Schizophrenia (NDST3 gene variation)^[44]
• Von Gierke disease^[45]
• Zellweger syndrome^[46]

Sephardi and Mizrahi diseases

In contrast to the Ashkenazi population, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews are much more divergent groups, with ancestors from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Italy, Libya, the Balkans, Iran, Kurdistan, Turkey, India, and Yemen, with specific genetic disorders found in each regional group, or even in specific subpopulations in these regions.^[47]

Genetic disorders common in Sephardic Jews

Disease	Mode of inheritance	Gene or enzyme	Carrier frequency	Populations
	Ophthalmology, dermatology	Autosomal recessive	TYR	1/30	Morocco
Ataxia–telangiectasia	Neurology, medical genetics	Autosomal recessive	ATM	1/80	Morocco, Tunisia
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease	Neurology	Autosomal dominant	PRNP	1/24,000	Libya
Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis	Medical genetics, endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	CYP27A1	1/70	Morocco
Cystinuria	Endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	SLC7A9	1/25	Libya
Familial Mediterranean fever	Rheumatology, immunology	Autosomal recessive	MEFV	1/5–7	All MENA (Middle Eastern and North African countries).
Glycogen storage disease III	Endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	AGL	1/35	Morocco, North Africa
Limb girdle muscular dystrophy	Neurology	Autosomal recessive	DYSF	1/10	Libya
Tay–Sachs	Neurology	Autosomal recessive	HEXA	1/110	Morocco
11-β-hydroxylase deficiency	Endocrinology	Autosomal recessive	CYP11B1	1/30–1/128	Morocco

Genetic disorders common in Mizrahi (Oriental) Jews

Disease	Mode of inheritance	Gene or enzyme	Carrier frequency	Populations
Beta-thalassemia	Hematology	Autosomal recessive	HBB	1/6	Iran, Kurdistan, Syria
Factor VII deficiency	Hematology, medical genetics	Autosomal recessive	F7	1/40	Iran
Familial Mediterranean fever	Rheumatology, immunology	Autosomal recessive, but heterozygous carriers also can show clinical manifestations.	MEFV	1/5–1/7	Iran, Kurdistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, North African Jews, Ashkenazi^[48]
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency	Medical genetics	X-linked	G6PD	1/4	Iran, esp. Kurdistan, Syria and all MENA countries. Female heterozygotes can also show clinical symptoms due to lyonization (X-inactivation) especially during pregnancy.^[49]
Inclusion body myopathy	Neurology	Autosomal recessive	GNE	1/12	Iran
Metachromatic leukodystrophy	Endocrinology, neurology	Autosomal recessive	ARSA	1/50	Yemen
Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy	Neurology	Autosomal, recessive or dominant	PABPN1	1/7	Bukhara
Phenylketonuria	Medical genetics, pediatrics, dietetics	Autosomal recessive	PAH	1/35	Yemen

Genetic testing in Jewish populations

One of the first genetic testing programs to identify heterozygote carriers of a genetic disorder was a program aimed at eliminating Tay–Sachs disease. This program began in 1970, and over one million people have now been screened for the mutation.^[50] Identifying carriers and counseling couples on reproductive options have had a large impact on the incidence of the disease, with a decrease from 40 to 50 per year worldwide to only four or five per year.^[3] Screening programs now test for several genetic disorders in Jews, although these focus on the Ashkenazi Jews, since other Jewish groups cannot be given a single set of tests for a common set of disorders.^[1] In the US, these screening programs have been widely accepted by the Ashkenazi community, and have greatly reduced the frequency of the disorders.^[51]

Prenatal testing for several genetic diseases is offered as commercial panels for Ashkenazi couples by both CIGNA and Quest Diagnostics. The CIGNA panel is available for testing for parental/preconception screening or following chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia, Gaucher disease, mucolipidosis IV, Neimann-Pick disease type A, Tay-Sachs disease, and torsion dystonia. The Quest panel is for parental/preconception testing and tests for Bloom syndrome, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, familial dysautonomia, Fanconi anemia group C, Gaucher disease, Neimann-Pick disease types A and B, and Tay-Sachs disease.

The official recommendations of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists is that Ashkenazi individuals be offered screening for Tay-Sachs disease, Canavan disease, cystic fibrosis, and familial dysautonomia as part of routine obstetrical care.^[52]

In the orthodox community, an organization called Dor Yeshorim carries out anonymous genetic screening of couples before marriage to reduce the risk of children with genetic diseases being born.^[53] The program educates young people on medical genetics and screens school-aged children for any disease genes. These results are then entered into an anonymous database, identified only by a unique ID number given to the person who was tested. If two people are considering getting married, they call the organization and tell them their ID numbers. The organization then tells them if they are genetically compatible. It is not divulged if one member is a carrier, so as to protect the carrier and his or her family from stigmatization.^[53] However, this program has been criticized for exerting social pressure on people to be tested, and for screening for a broad range of recessive genes, including disorders such as Gaucher disease.^[2]

Criticism

Hebrew University Professor Raphael Falk published a criticism of studies identifying genetic disorders as being the result of hereditary endogamy.^[54] Dr. Sherry Brandt-Rauf of the University of Illinois and Sheila Rothman of Columbia University co-authored a critique of the methodologies as well as condemning those who worked on the eugenic studies which attributed genetic disorders to religious demographics in paper which explored the ramifications of such concepts entering the workplace stating, "such linkages 'exaggerate genetic differences among ethnic groups' and may result in 'health disparities' in groups not targeted for screening.^[55]

See also

• Ethnicity and health
• Genetic studies on Jews
• Jewish genealogy
• Jewish medical ethics
• Finnish heritage disease

Further reading

• Book: Abel, Ernest L. . vanc . Jewish genetic disorders: a layman's guide . McFarland . Jefferson, N.C . 2001 . 0-7864-0941-X . registration .
• Book: Goodman, Richard M. . vanc . Genetic disorders among the Jewish people . registration . Johns Hopkins University Press . Baltimore . 1979 . 0-8018-2120-7 .
• Book: Goldstein, David I. . vanc . Jacob's Legacy: A Genetic View of Jewish History . Yale University Press . New Haven, Conn . 2009 . 978-0-300-15128-2 .
• Guha S, Rosenfeld JA, Malhotra AK, Lee AT, Gregersen PK, Kane JM, Pe'er I, Darvasi A, Lencz T . Implications for health and disease in the genetic signature of the Ashkenazi Jewish population . Genome Biology . 13 . 1 . R2 . January 2012 . 22277159 . 3334583 . 10.1186/gb-2012-13-1-r2 . free .

External links

• Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders
• Ashkenazi Jews – The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• Jewish Diseases Genetic Testing – The Center for Medical Genetics
• Ashkenazi Jewish Genetic Diseases – Victor Center for Jewish Genetic Diseases
• Ashkenazi Jewish Diseases – Tufts Medical Center
• Jewish Genetic Disease Consortium
• Center for Jewish Genetic Diseases – Mount Sinai Medical Center
• Mendelian disorders among Jews – Israeli National Genetic Database
• Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similarity by The New York Times

Notes and References

1. News: Talia . Bloch . vanc . Sephardi Jews lack screening programs for their genetic diseases . Haaretz . August 21, 2009.
2. News: Gina . Kolata . vanc . Nightmare or the Dream Of a New Era in Genetics? . New York Times . December 7, 1993.
3. Ostrer H . A genetic profile of contemporary Jewish populations . Nature Reviews. Genetics . 2 . 11 . 891–8 . November 2001 . 11715044 . 10.1038/35098506 . 3938664 .
4. Levin M. 1999. Screening Jews and genes: a consideration of the ethics of genetic screening within the Jewish community: challenges and responses. Genetic Testing. 3. 2. 207–13. 10.1089/gte.1999.3.207. 10464669.
5. Bachrach S. July 2004. In the name of public health--Nazi racial hygiene. The New England Journal of Medicine. 351. 5. 417–20. 10.1056/NEJMp048136. 15282346.
6. Modell B, Darr A . Science and society: genetic counselling and customary consanguineous marriage . Nature Reviews. Genetics . 3 . 3 . 225–9 . March 2002 . 11972160 . 10.1038/nrg754 . 3329927 .
7. Paul DB, Spencer HG . "It's ok, we're not cousins by blood": the cousin marriage controversy in historical perspective . PLOS Biology . 6 . 12 . 2627–30 . December 2008 . 19108607 . 2605922 . 10.1371/journal.pbio.0060320 . Keller . Evelyn Fox . free .
8. Carmeli DB . Prevalence of Jews as subjects in genetic research: figures, explanation, and potential implications . American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A . 130A . 1 . 76–83 . September 2004 . 15368499 . 10.1002/ajmg.a.20291 . 23251307 .
9. Atzmon G, Schechter C, Greiner W, Davidson D, Rennert G, Barzilai N . Clinical phenotype of families with longevity . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society . 52 . 2 . 274–7 . February 2004 . 14728640 . 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52068.x . 31740586 .
10. Atzmon G, Cho M, Cawthon RM, Budagov T, Katz M, Yang X, Siegel G, Bergman A, Huffman DM, Schechter CB, Wright WE, Shay JW, Barzilai N, Govindaraju DR, Suh Y . 6 . Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Genetic variation in human telomerase is associated with telomere length in Ashkenazi centenarians . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 107 Suppl 1 . suppl_1 . 1710–7 . January 2010 . 19915151 . 2868292 . 10.1073/pnas.0906191106 . 2010PNAS..107.1710A . free .
11. Carmi . Shai . Hui . Ken Y. . Kochav . Ethan . Liu . Xinmin . Xue . James . Grady . Fillan . Guha . Saurav . Upadhyay . Kinnari . Ben-Avraham . Dan . Mukherjee . Semanti . Bowen . B. Monica . Thomas . Tinu . Vijai . Joseph . Cruts . Marc . Froyen . Guy . Lambrechts . Diether . Plaisance . Stéphane . Van Broeckhoven . Christine . Van Damme . Philip . Van Marck . Herwig . Barzilai . Nir . Darvasi . Ariel . Offit . Kenneth . Bressman . Susan . Ozelius . Laurie J. . Peter . Inga . Cho . Judy H. . Ostrer . Harry . Atzmon . Gil . Clark . Lorraine N. . Lencz . Todd . Pe’er . Itsik . vanc . 6 . Sequencing an Ashkenazi reference panel supports population-targeted personal genomics and illuminates Jewish and European origins . Nature Communications . 9 September 2014 . 5 . 1 . 4835 . 10.1038/ncomms5835 . 25203624 . 2014NatCo...5.4835C . 4164776 .
12. Web site: Schuster . Ruth . Ashkenazi Jews Descend From 350 People, Scientists Say . The Forward . September 9, 2014 .
13. Behar DM, Hammer MF, Garrigan D, Villems R, Bonne-Tamir B, Richards M, Gurwitz D, Rosengarten D, Kaplan M, Della Pergola S, Quintana-Murci L, Skorecki K . MtDNA evidence for a genetic bottleneck in the early history of the Ashkenazi Jewish population . European Journal of Human Genetics . 12 . 5 . 355–64 . May 2004 . 14722586 . 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201156 . etal . free .
14. News: Nicholas . Wade . vanc . Diseases Common in Ashkenazim May Be Random . New York Times . March 4, 2003.
15. Orr-Urtreger A, Shifrin C, Rozovski U, Rosner S, Bercovich D, Gurevich T, Yagev-More H, Bar-Shira A, Giladi N . The LRRK2 G2019S mutation in Ashkenazi Jews with Parkinson disease: is there a gender effect? . Neurology . 69 . 16 . 1595–602 . October 2007 . 17938369 . 10.1212/01.wnl.0000277637.33328.d8 . 22029316 . etal .
16. Web site: Warsaw Breakage Syndrome . GOV.IL . 9 April 2023 . en.
17. Web site: Tay–Sachs Disease Information Page . . February 14, 2007 . May 25, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161202232626/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/taysachs/taysachs.htm . December 2, 2016 . dead .
18. Sutton VR . Tay-Sachs disease screening and counseling families at risk for metabolic disease . Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America . 29 . 2 . 287–96 . June 2002 . 12108829 . 10.1016/S0889-8545(01)00002-X .
19. Web site: Genome News Network, J. Craig Venter Institute . The Success Story of Gene Tests . Julie . Buckles . vanc . August 20, 2001 . April 14, 2008 .
20. Diaz GA, Gelb BD, Risch N, Nygaard TG, Frisch A, Cohen IJ, Miranda CS, Amaral O, Maire I, Poenaru L, Caillaud C, Weizberg M, Mistry P, Desnick RJ . Gaucher disease: the origins of the Ashkenazi Jewish N370S and 84GG acid beta-glucosidase mutations . American Journal of Human Genetics . 66 . 6 . 1821–32 . June 2000 . 10777718 . 1378046 . 10.1086/302946 . etal . '
21. Web site: National Gaucher Foundation . May 30, 2007 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070517013236/http://www.gaucherdisease.org/prevalence.php . May 17, 2007 .
22. Web site: Diseases: Mucolipidosis . https://web.archive.org/web/20070217005259/http://www.mssm.edu/jewish_genetics/diseases/mucolipidosis.shtml . dead . 17 February 2007 . Mount Sinai – Center for Jewish Genetic Diseases – Department of Human Genetics .
23. Web site: Ashkenazi Disorders: Mendelian – Niemann–Pick disease . The Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders .
24. Boas FE . Linkage to Gaucher mutations in the Ashkenazi population: effect of drift on decay of linkage disequilibrium and evidence for heterozygote selection . Blood Cells, Molecules & Diseases . 26 . 4 . 348–59 . August 2000 . 11042036 . 10.1006/bcmd.2000.0314 . 9665010 .
25. Harpending H, Cochran G . Genetic diversity and genetic burden in humans . Infection, Genetics and Evolution . 6 . 2 . 154–62 . March 2006 . 16246638 . 10.1016/j.meegid.2005.04.002 . 2006InfGE...6..154H .
26. Web site: Ashkenazi Disorders: Mendelian – Familial dysautonomia . The Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders .
27. about one in 30 Ashkenazi Jews carry the disease, compared to 1 in 3000 of the general population
28. A founder mutation in COL4A3 causes autosomal recessive Alport syndrome in the Ashkenazi Jewish population . 23927549 . 2014 . Webb . B. D. . Brandt . T. . Liu . L. . Jalas . C. . Liao . J. . Fedick . A. . Linderman . M. D. . Diaz . G. A. . Kornreich . R. . Trachtman . H. . Mehta . L. . Edelmann . L. . Clinical Genetics . 86 . 2 . 155–160 . 10.1111/cge.12247 . 29058203 .
29. Web site: Ashkenazi Jews and Colorectal Cancer . The Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders .
30. Web site: Ashkenazi Disorders: Mendelian – Non-Classical Adrenal Hyperplasia . Jewish Genetic Disorders Organization .
31. Shalimar A, Sharaf I, Farah Wahida I, Ruszymah BH . Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhydrosis in a Malaysian family: a genetic analysis . Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery . 15 . 3 . 357–60 . December 2007 . 18162686 . 10.1177/230949900701500323 . Type III is familial dysautonomia or Riley–Day syndrome. It is multisystemic and affects mainly Ashkenazi Jews. . free .
32. Shugart YY, Silverberg MS, Duerr RH, Taylor KD, Wang MH, Zarfas K, Schumm LP, Bromfield G, Steinhart AH, Griffiths AM, Kane SV, Barmada MM, Rotter JI, Mei L, Bernstein CN, Bayless TM, Langelier D, Cohen A, Bitton A, Rioux JD, Cho JH, Brant SR . 6 . An SNP linkage scan identifies significant Crohn's disease loci on chromosomes 13q13.3 and, in Jewish families, on 1p35.2 and 3q29 . Genes and Immunity . 9 . 2 . 161–7 . March 2008 . 18246054 . 3858857 . 10.1038/sj.gene.6364460 .
33. Web site: Large multicenter study suggests new genetic markers for Crohn's disease . EurekAlert! .
34. Book: Gutkind. Lee. Kennedy. Pagan . vanc . An Immense New Power to Heal: The Promise of Personalized Medicine. 10 October 2013. Underland Press. 978-1-937163-07-5. 36–.
35. Weissmann A, Linn S, Weltfriend S, Friedman-Birnbaum R . Epidemiological study of classic Kaposi's sarcoma: a retrospective review of 125 cases from Northern Israel . Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology . 14 . 2 . 91–5 . March 2000 . 10972092 . 10.1046/j.1468-3083.2000.00022.x . 22736133 .
36. Web site: Ashkenazi Jewish Diseases . Tufts Medical Center .
37. Web site: Ashkenazi Disorders: Mendelian – Mucolipidosis IV . The Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders .
38. Web site: Myeloproliferative Neoplasms . Cancer Network . 14 September 2018 . 1 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200501102002/https://www.cancernetwork.com/cancer-management/myeloproliferative-neoplasms . dead .
39. Web site: Ashkenazi Disorders: Mendelian – Nonsyndromic Hearing Loss and Deafness, DFNB1 (Connexin 26) . The Chicago Center for Jewish Genetic Disorders .
40. Bonifati V . Parkinson's disease: the LRRK2-G2019S mutation: opening a novel era in Parkinson's disease genetics . European Journal of Human Genetics . 14 . 10 . 1061–2 . October 2006 . 16835587 . 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201695 . free .
41. Lesage S, Patin E, Condroyer C, Leutenegger AL, Lohmann E, Giladi N, Bar-Shira A, Belarbi S, Hecham N, Pollak P, Ouvrard-Hernandez AM, Bardien S, Carr J, Benhassine T, Tomiyama H, Pirkevi C, Hamadouche T, Cazeneuve C, Basak AN, Hattori N, Dürr A, Tazir M, Orr-Urtreger A, Quintana-Murci L, Brice A . 6 . Parkinson's disease-related LRRK2 G2019S mutation results from independent mutational events in humans . Human Molecular Genetics . 19 . 10 . 1998–2004 . May 2010 . 20197411 . 10.1093/hmg/ddq081 . French Parkinson's Disease Genetics Study Group . free .
42. Zimprich A, Biskup S, Leitner P, Lichtner P, Farrer M, Lincoln S, Kachergus J, Hulihan M, Uitti RJ, Calne DB, Stoessl AJ, Pfeiffer RF, Patenge N, Carbajal IC, Vieregge P, Asmus F, Müller-Myhsok B, Dickson DW, Meitinger T, Strom TM, Wszolek ZK, Gasser T . 6 . Mutations in LRRK2 cause autosomal-dominant parkinsonism with pleomorphic pathology . Neuron . 44 . 4 . 601–7 . November 2004 . 15541309 . 10.1016/j.neuron.2004.11.005 . We have previously linked families with autosomal-dominant, late-onset parkinsonism to chromosome 12p11.2-q13.1 (PARK8)... . free .
43. Klein J, Sato A . The HLA system. Second of two parts . The New England Journal of Medicine . 343 . 11 . 782–6 . September 2000 . 10984567 . 10.1056/NEJM200009143431106 .
44. Web site: Ido . Efrati . vanc . 26 November 2013 . Scientists Discover Gene That Predisposes Ashkenazi Jews to Schizophrenia . Haaretz Newspaper .
45. Web site: Glycogen Storage Disease Type Ia Mutation Analysis (Ashkenazi Jewish). 11 November 2011. 6 March 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160306063255/http://questdiagnostics.com/hcp/testmenu/jsp/showtestmenu.jsp?fn=16069x.html&labcode=qdv. dead.
46. Ahn JK, Lev D, Leshinsky-Silver E, Ginzberg M, Lerman-Sagie T . A new autosomal recessive syndrome with Zellweger-like manifestations . American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A . 119A . 3 . 352–5 . June 2003 . 12784304 . 10.1002/ajmg.a.20124 . 26432877 . A son and daughter of consanguineous Ashkenazi Jewish parents presented with phenotypic features that are typically seen in Zellweger syndrome... .
47. Rosner G, Rosner S, Orr-Urtreger A . Genetic testing in Israel: an overview . Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics . 10 . 175–92 . 2009 . 19453249 . 10.1146/annurev.genom.030308.111406 . 8964636 .
48. Marek-Yagel D, Berkun Y, Padeh S, Abu A, Reznik-Wolf H, Livneh A, Pras M, Pras E . Clinical disease among patients heterozygous for familial Mediterranean fever . Arthritis and Rheumatism . 60 . 6 . 1862–6 . June 2009 . 19479871 . 10.1002/art.24570 .
49. Web site: Women with G6PD Deficiency . g6pd-deficiency.org .
50. Kaback MM . Population-based genetic screening for reproductive counseling: the Tay-Sachs disease model . European Journal of Pediatrics . 159 . Suppl 3 . S192-5 . December 2000 . 11216898 . 10.1007/PL00014401 . 5808156 .
51. Kronn D, Jansen V, Ostrer H . Carrier screening for cystic fibrosis, Gaucher disease, and Tay-Sachs disease in the Ashkenazi Jewish population: the first 1000 cases at New York University Medical Center, New York, NY . Archives of Internal Medicine . 158 . 7 . 777–81 . April 1998 . 9554684 . 10.1001/archinte.158.7.777 . free .
52. ACOG committee on genetics . ACOG Committee Opinion No. 442: Preconception and prenatal carrier screening for genetic diseases in individuals of Eastern European Jewish descent . Obstetrics and Gynecology . 114 . 4 . 950–3 . October 2009 . 19888064 . 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181bd12f4 . 13136589 .
53. Book: Ekstein J, Katzenstein H . 23. The Dor Yeshorim story: Community-based carrier screening for Tay-Sachs disease . Tay-Sachs Disease . 44 . 297–310 . 2001 . 11596991 . 10.1016/S0065-2660(01)44087-9 . 978-0-12-017644-1 . Advances in Genetics .
54. Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent. Raphael. Falk. 23 May 2014. Frontiers in Genetics. 5. 462. 10.3389/fgene.2014.00462. 25653666. 4301023 . free .
55. Genetic testing in the workplace: ethical, legal, and social implications. Paul W.. Brandt-Rauf. Sherry I.. Brandt-Rauf. 23 May 2004. Annual Review of Public Health. 25. 139–153. 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123012. 15015916. free.