Jê languages explained

Jê
Also Known As:	Jê–Kaingang, Gê, Ye
Familycolor:	American
Glotto:	jeee1236
Glottorefname:	Je
Map:	Macro-Ge languages.png
Mapcaption:	Jê languages proper (clear yellow) and other Macro-Jê languages (dark yellow) in modern times. Shadowed area represent approximately extension in the past.

The Jê languages (also spelled Gê, Jean, Ye, Gean), or Jê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by the Jê, a group of indigenous peoples in Brazil.

Genetic relations

The Jê family forms the core of the Macro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal convincing.

Family division

According to Ethnologue (which omits Jeikó), the language family is as follows:

• Jeikó (†)
• Northern Jê
  • Apinayé (2,300 speakers)
  • Mẽbengokre (Kayapó) (8,638 speakers)
  • Panará (Kreen Akarore) (380 speakers)
  • Suyá (350 speakers)
  • Timbira (Canela-Krayô, with the Canela and Kreye dialects) (5,100 speakers)
• Central Jê
  • Acroá (†)
  • Xavante (9,600 speakers)
  • Xerente (1,810 speakers)
  • Xakriabá (†)
• Southern Jê
  • Xokleng (760 speakers)
  • Kaingáng
    • Kaingáng (18,000 speakers)
    • São Paulo Kaingáng (†)
    • Ingain (†)
    • Guayana (†)

Ramirez (2015)

Internal classification of the Jê languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):^[1]

Jê

• Southern Jê (dialect continuum)
  • Ingain ↔ Xokleng ↔ Kaigáng
• Northern Jê
  • Jê proper (Timbira-Kayapó dialect continuum)
    • Canela-Krahô ↔ Gavião-Krĩkati ↔ Apinajé ↔ Kayapó ↔ Suyá-Tapayuna ↔ Panará-Kayapó do Sul
  • Akuwẽ (various microdialects)
    • Xavante
    • Xerente (including Xakriabá, Akroá, Gueguê)

Ramirez excludes Jaikó as a possibly spurious language.

Nikulin (2020)

According to Nikulin (2020), the internal branching of the Jê language family is as follows:^[2]

Jê

• Paraná
  • Ingain
  • Southern Jê
    • Kaingáng
    • Laklãnõ
• Cerrado
  • Akuwẽ
    • Xerénte
    • Xavánte
    • Xakriabá
    • Acroá
  • Goyaz Jê
    • Southern Kayapó
      • Mossâmedes dialect
      • Triângulo dialect
        • Panará
    • Northern Jê
      • Timbíra
        • Parkatêjê

Kỳikatêjê

• • • • • Core Timbíra
          • Krikati

Pykobjê

• • • • • • Krahô

Canela (dialects: Apànjêkra, Mẽmõrtũmre)

• • • • Trans-Tocantins
        • Apinajé
        • Trans-Araguaia
          • Mẽbêngôkre (dialects: Xikrín, Kayapó)
          • Tapajós
            • Kĩsêdjê
            • Tapayúna

Some sound changes and lexical innovations that define various Jê subgroups:^[3]

• Proto-Southern Jê *a < *Proto-Jê *ô
• Proto-Cerrado *wa < Proto-Jê *ô
• Proto-Goyaz Jê

*am, *um, *ɨm > *ãm, *ũm, *ɨ̃m

• • Proto-Northern Jê

replacement of *kakũm ‘dry season’ (as in Panará akũŋ and Proto-Central Jê) with

• • Proto-Timbíra

*c > *h

• • Proto-Trans-Tocantins

replacement of *a-mbə ‘eat (intransitive)’ with *ap-ku

Varieties

Below is a full list of Jê language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.^[4]

Timbirá group

• Mehin – language spoken in the village of Araraparituya on the right bank of the Gurupí River, Maranhão state. Now perhaps extinct.
• Tajé / Timbirá – spoken in the village of Bacurí on the right bank of the Mearim River, state of Maranhão.
• Kukoekamekran – once spoken on the lower course of the Grajaú River, Maranhão. (Unattested.)
• Kreapimkatajé / Krepúnkateye – spoken on the middle course of the Grajaú River.
• Karákatajé – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the preceding tribe. (Unattested.)
• Krenjé – spoken at the sources of the Gurupí River.
• Remkokamekran / Remako-Kamékrere / Merrime – spoken on the Corda River and Alpercatas River, especially in the village of Ponto.
• Aponegicran / Apáñekra – language spoken at the sources of the Corda River.
• Krenkatajé / Canella – extinct language once spoken in the village of Suridade on the Alpercatas River.
• Sakamekran / Chacamecran / Mateiros – spoken on the Codo River and Flores River.
• Purekamekran – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Grajaú River.
• Makamekran / Pepuxi – once spoken on the Manuel Alves Pequeno River.
• Kenpokatajé – once spoken between the Manuel Alves Grande River and Manuel Alves Pequeno River. (Unattested.)
• Kanakateyé – once spoken on the Farinha River, Maranhão. (Unattested.)
• Apinagé – language spoken between the Tocantins River and Araguaia River, near their confluence.
• Karaho / Carauau – once spoken in the Serra do Estrondo, Goiás state.
• Menren / Gavioes / Augutjé – spoken between the Tocantins River and Surubiu River in the state of Pará. (Only a few words.)
• Meitajé – spoken by a few individuals northeast of Itupiranga, Maranhão state.
• Norokwajé / Nurukwayé – spoken south of the Apinagé tribe on the Tocantins River, but perhaps extinct now. (Unattested.)

Krao group

• Krahó / Krao – language spoken between the Macapá River and Balsas River and the Serra das Alpercatas, Maranhão state.
• Krikati / Krikatajé – spoken between the Tocantins River and Grajaú River to the sources of the Pindaré River, Maranhão.
• Piokobjé / Bncobu / Pukobje – spoken at the sources of the Grajaú River.
• Kapiekran – once spoken on the Balsas River, Maranhão.

Kayapó group

• Kayapó / Ibirayára – originally in the interior of the state of Goiás, now between the Araguaia River and Tapajós River, state of Pará. Dialects:
  • Iraamráire / Meibenokre / Mekubengokrä / Cayapó do Rio Pau d'Arco – spoken on the Arrais River and Pau d'Arco River, state of Pará; now probably extinct.
  • Gorotiré / Cayapó do Xingu – spoken as a dialect of Cayapó between the Xingu River and Pau d'Arco River.
  • Chikrí / Xicri – spoken between the Macaxeira River and Pardo River, south of the Itacaiunas River, Pará.
  • Kuben-Kran-Keñ – spoken on the Ambé River near Altamira, Pará.
  • Dzyoré – spoken at the sources of the Cuxura River, Pará. (Unattested.)
  • Purucaru – spoken between the Fresco River and the sources of the Itacaiunas River. (Unattested.)
  • Metotíre / Chukahamai – spoken by a few individuals on the Culuene River near the falls of Von Martius and on the Jarina River, state of Mato Grosso.
  • Kruatire – spoken on the right bank of the Liberdade River, Pará. (Unattested.)
  • Krinkatíre – spoken by an unknown tribe in the state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
  • Kren-Akárore – spoken by an unknown tribe, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
  • Mek-kran-noty – spoken on the Iriri River, Pará state. (Unattested.)
  • Kradahó / Gradaú – once spoken between the Araguaia River and Sororó River, Pará, now perhaps extinct.
  • Ushikrin – extinct dialect once spoken on the Vermelho River south of the Carajá tribe, state of Goiás.

Central group

• Southern Cayapó – incorrect name of a language the original name of which is unknown; originally spoken in the southern areas of the state of Mato Grosso on the Turvo River, Corumbá River, Meia Ponte River, Tijuco River, das Velhas River, Pardo River, Sucuriú River, Aporé River, Verde River, and Taquari River. Later found in the old mission of Santa Ana de Paranaíba and now spoken by only a few families in a village on the confluence of the Grande River and Paraná River, state of São Paulo. The following extinct languages may have been related:
  • Panariá – extinct language spoken once near Uberaba, state of Minas Gerais.
  • Mandimbóia – state of Minas Gerais on the Verde River and Sapucai-Guasú River.
  • Candindé – once spoken in the Itapecerica Valley near Divinópolis, Minas Gerais.
  • Bocoani – once spoken between the Turvo River and Preto River, Minas Gerais.
  • Morupak / Mirapác – once spoken between the Sapucai-Guasú River and Jaguari River, state of Minas Gerais.
  • Katágua – once spoken on the Jequiriçá River, Minas Gerais.
  • Puxiauá – language of the neighbors of the Katágua tribe.
  • Teremembe – once spoken on the Paraopeba River, Paranaíba River, Grande River, and Sapucai-Guasú River, Minas Gerais.
  • Araxó – once spoken in the vicinity of the modern city of Araxá, Minas Gerais.
  • Araxué – once spoken between the Serra Canastra and Mata de Corda.
  • Carayá – unknown language spoken by a tribe from the northern area of the Paraíba do Sul River, Minas Gerais.

Western

• Suyá – language spoken by a tribe that once lived at the mouth of the Suia-Missu River on the Xingu River; now in an unexplored area to the north.

Eastern

• Goyá – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Vermelho River, Goiás state. (Unattested.)
• Xavante / Akwẽ / Akuän / Kayamó – spoken in the state of Mato Grosso in the Serra do Roncador and between the Tocantins River and Araguaia River in the Serra dos Chavantes.
• Xerente – spoken between the Tocantins River, Sono River and Urucuaí River in the interior of the state of Goiás
• Xaraó – extinct language once spoken in the village of Pedro Afonso on the Tocantins River. (Unattested.)
• Xakriabá / Chicriabá – extinct language once spoken in the state of Goiás between the Palma River and Corumbá River.
• Acroá / Coroá – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Parnaíba River and Paranaíba River, state of Bahia.
• Aricobé / Abroa – once spoken on the Preto River and in the Serra das Figuras, state of Bahia. Several families have been reported in this location. (Unattested.)
• Takacuá – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Sono River, state of Goiás. (Unattested.)
• Guaiba – once spoken on Guaiba Island in the São Francisco River near the city of São Romão, state of Minas Gerais. (Unattested.)
• Krixá – once spoken in the São Marcos valley between the Urucuia River and Paracatu River in the state of Minas Gerais. (Unattested.)
• Goguez / Guegué – once spoken between the Tocantins River and Gurguéia River in the state of Piauí. (Unattested.)

Jeicó group

• Jaicó / Zyeikó – extinct language once spoken on the Canindé River, Gurguéia River, and Piauí River, state of Piauí
• Eastern Timbirá – once spoken in the state of Piauí between the Itaim River and Parnaíba River. (Unattested.)
• Arua – once spoken in Piauí state between the Itaim River and Jaguaribe River. (Unattested.)
• Ponti – once spoken on an island in the São Francisco River near the city of Quebrobó (Cabrobó), Pernambuco state; Portuguese is now spoken. (Unattested.)

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.

Language	Branch	head	eye	tongue	hand	one	two	three
Mehín	Timbirá I	i-xreː	ntó	i-yotó	i-nuxrá	püti	ibiaklüte	inklüt
Tajé	Timbirá I	pá-krẽ	ntó	pá-yõtó	pá-ushrá
Krenjé	Timbirá I	í-xu	ntó	pá-yõtó	pá-ükra	mbuchíd	ibyashüd	nkri
Remkoka-Mekran	Timbirá I	pa-krãn	pa-ntó	pa-ñató	pa-nukra	puchite	hibiakruke	inkri
Aponegikran	Timbirá I	i-kra	i-nthó	i-ñoto	i-ninkráy	hapuchiti	ipiakautu	inkré
Krenkatajé	Timbirá I			hõ-ató	hõ-krá	buchití	daikrut	donkré
Sakamekran	Timbirá II	i-krã	i-tó	yontou	u-krá
Purekamekran	Timbirá II	i-klan		i-notho
Makamekran	Timbirá II	i-kran	ñóto	i-nontó	ñukrá	püchit	äklúte	glé
Apinagé	Timbirá II	is-kran	i-nto	ñoto	ñukra	pushi	adkrúte	adrun-ati
Karaho	Timbirá II	i-kran	i-nto	yoto	ñukra	ita	ökrüd	inkrä
Menren	Timbirá II	pa-kran	i-tó		i-yukrá	pitit	emkröt	enkrí
Kayapó	Kayapó I	i-kran	i-ntó	i-ñoto	i-nikra	pudi	amaikrut
Iraamráire	Kayapó I	krã	no	i-ñoto	nikra	púdi	amaikrut
Gorotiré	Kayapó II	krã	nó	ñótó	nikra	püdyi	amaigru
Duludi	Kayapó II		hueh-noh	hue-nohdoh	hue-nigrah
Metotíre	Kayapó II	i-kran	i-nó	i-ñotó	i-nikra
Gradaú	Kayapó II	i-kran	i-naká	i-ñoto	i-nikra	podzyi	ameikrut
Xikrí	Kayapó II	krãn	nó	ontó	nikrá	pudí	amaikrut	amaikrutkieket
Usikrin	Kayapó II		no
Southern Kayapó	Kayapó II	i-ikran	i-ntó	tsuto	shikria
Kapiekran	Krao				ñukrá
Krahó	Krao	krãn	hitó	hioptó	nikrá	puchite	hibiakruke	nkri
Piokobjé	Krao	nkrãn	ntó	to	nkrá	pechäte	hibiakrót	nkri
Krikati	Krao	i-krã	i-tó		i-yukrá	itá pochet	netá ipekrot	itá ikri
Suyá	Eastern	wa-kurá	woa-ndó	wã-notó	wa-ñikó
Xavante	Eastern	da-kän	da-to	da-nonto	dé-iperé	simisi	maipoänä	skudaton
Xerente	Eastern	da-krãn	da-tó	da-noitó	da-nipikra	shimishi	poñkámen	mepráne
Xakriabá	Eastern	da-kran	da-toman		da-shipigrá	hemerotong	prané	eskumantong
Akroá	Eastern	ai-krán	aí-nthó	aso-inthó	as-subkrá
Jeicó	Jeicó	grang-blá	a-lepú	ä-netá	ä-nänong

Language	Branch	water	fire	sun	jaguar	tapir	bow
Mehín	Timbirá I	kú	kühü	pud	erb	kuxrüd	xúhi
Tajé	Timbirá I	kú	kúhü	püt	oróp	kuxüd	kúhi
Krenjé	Timbirá I	kú	kúxü	püd	orób	kukrüdn	kúhi
Remkoka-Mekran	Timbirá I	kó	kuxú	pud	oróbo	kukrúte	kuːhí
Aponegikran	Timbirá I	kó	koxʔhó	pútu	orópa
Krenkatajé	Timbirá I		goxé	put	oropi		kuhé
Sakamekran	Timbirá II	ko		put			kuhẽ
Purekamekran	Timbirá II	gó	kuhü	put	rop	guklüthe
Makamekran	Timbirá II	gó	köyhé	büt	róp	kokreyuti	kuché
Apinagé	Timbirá II	inkó	kukuvu	buré	robo	koklüte	gutye
Karaho	Timbirá II	kó	kukuvu	put	robo	kokräti	kuhä
Menren	Timbirá II	ko	koró	putiri	orótuk	kokrét	kuhẽ
Kayapó	Kayapó I	ngo	kuwú	mut	róp	kukrot	dzyuzyé
Iraamráire	Kayapó I	no	kuö	mút	rob	kukrüt	dzyudzye
Gorotiré	Kayapó II	ngó	kuwü	mud	rob	kukrüd	dyúdye
Duludi	Kayapó II
Metotíre	Kayapó II	ingo	kua	mut	rokronre	kukrut	dudzye
Gradaú	Kayapó II	ngo	kui	mut	rab	kukrit	dzyudzyä
Xikrí	Kayapó II	ngou	kuã	maːt	róp		diudieː
Usikrin	Kayapó II	ngo	kóã	mud	rokrari	kokrít	derätukä
Southern Kayapó	Kayapó II	piñkó	ichiú	itputi	napiá	idzhúta	ishé
Kapiekran	Krao	ku	kusshi	amikru
Krahó	Krao	kó	kuvrú	amkró	rob	kutkrút
Piokobjé	Krao	kó	kahó	amkró	ropkro	kokrät	kohé
Krikati	Krao	ko	kuhẽ	ankró
Suyá	Eastern	ngo	kustó	múrru	rauití	kukrit	tuté
Xavante	Eastern	kö	kushe	budu	hú	kuhodu	kumikã
Xerente	Eastern	kö	kuzé	bedö	rhúkú	kudu	komikan
Xakriabá	Eastern	kü	kuché	stakró	ukú	kutó	komekané
Akroá	Eastern		kuchio	put	hukutu	kuäté
Jeicó	Jeicó		ping	xügkrá	kolunong	xkünoniang

Proto-language

Proto-Jê
Familycolor:	American
Ancestor:	Proto-Macro-Jê
Target:	Jê languages

Nikulin (2020)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020):^[5]

gloss	Proto-Jê
‘foot’	par
‘arm, branch’	pañ
‘tree, wood, firewood’	pĩm
‘to rub, to clean’	põ
‘to leave.PL’	pôc
‘to fart’	pê/*pê-k
‘hungry, to want’	prə̃m’
‘coal, ember’	prʏ
‘road’	pry (~ *pryn)
‘wife’	prũ
‘to hear, to understand’	mba
‘liver’	mba
‘to be afraid’	-mbaŋ’
‘DAT’	mə̃
‘to grab, to carry’	mbə̂
‘tail’	mbyn
‘celestial body’	mbyt
‘good’	mbec
‘PL; with’	mẽ
‘liquid’	mbên
‘husband’	mbɪn’
‘to go.PL’	mũ
‘ashes’	mbrə
‘ant’	mbrʊm’
‘relative by marriage’ (kinship term)	mbre
‘to walk’	wa
‘to take, to carry’	wy
‘to untie’	wô
‘to fly.SG’	tə
‘tongue’	ñũctə
‘INSTR’	tə̃
‘strong, hard’	tə̂t
‘to die’	ty
‘capybara’	k(r)Vmtym’
‘black, dark’	tyk
‘fat’	tom’
‘old’	tʊm’
‘to carry’	tu
‘horsefly’	potu
‘NEG’	tũ
‘to go.SG’	tẽ
‘to dream’	peti
‘to send’	jandə
‘eye’	ndəm
‘mother’	nə̃
‘to lie.SG’	nõ
‘bad or crooked’	pondʊ (~ *pondʊn)
‘to hit’	ra
‘wing; armpit’	jara
‘celestial body’	roñ
‘to transport liquid or to pour’	ru
‘to leave, to abandon’	re
‘to throw.PL’	rẽ
‘root’	jarê (~ *jarên)
‘to weed’	-rê(C)
‘to look’	rĩt
‘to weave’	cy
‘seed’	cym
‘to eat soft food, to suck’	cô
‘leaf’	côj
‘nest’	jacê ~ *jVmcê
‘bandage, sling’	-cĩ(C)
‘to chew’	kapnĵa
‘bee, bumblebee’	nĵy
‘to hang.SG’	nĵô
‘to tickle’	nĵê
‘to stand.SG’	ja
‘to put vertically.SG’	ja
‘nose’	ñĩja
‘to eat.INTR, food’	jañ
‘bitter’	jə̂
‘smoke’	ñĩjə̂
‘urine’	jʏ
‘to sit.SG’	ñỹ
‘tooth’	jo
‘salt’	kVjo
‘to tear, to rip’	jô
‘pus’	jʊ
‘postposition’	jʊ
‘father’	jʊm’
‘to hide’	peju
‘to heat, to dry’	nĵu
‘to sleep’	ũt/*ñũt
‘thread, knot, cloth’	jê (~ *jên)
‘female breast’	ñũmjê(C)
‘vein’	kujêk
‘to lay.SG’	ji
‘name’	jiji ~ *ñĩji
‘meat’	ñĩ
‘hand (in compounds)’	ñĩ(m)-
‘basket’	kaj’
‘skin, bark’	kyñ
‘lip’	jar-kyñ
‘to dig’	ko
‘mouth’	jar-ko
‘sky’	kVñko
‘fly, mosquito’	kôp
‘tree, horn’	kôm
‘horn’	ñĩ-kôm
‘wind’	kôk ~ *ka-kôk
‘to eat’	kʊ
‘stone’	kẽt
‘NEG’	kêt
‘pit’	kɪj
‘to split’	kɪ ~ *kɪj ~ *kɪj’
‘offspring’	kra
‘macaw’	krat
‘head’	krỹñ
‘knee’	jVkrỹñ
‘chin, beak’	krot
‘hole’	kre
‘to plant’	kre
‘thigh’	krɪñ
‘to push against, to grind’	ŋə̃(C)
‘feather, hair’	ŋgoñ’
‘louse’	ŋgô
‘to push against, to crumble’	ŋũ
‘to enter.PL’	ŋgɪ
‘toucan’	ŋrũ (~ *ŋrũn)
‘egg’	ŋgre
‘to dance’	ŋgre
‘wrap’	ŋrĩ(C)

For a more complete list of Proto-Jê reconstructions, as well as Proto-Southern Jê reconstructions, see the corresponding Portuguese article.

Ribeiro & van der Voort (2010)

Proto-Jê reconstructions by Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010):^[6]

gloss	Proto-Jê
‘relational prefix’	j-
‘dative’	mã
‘to open’	kje
‘wing’	j-ar
‘mouth’	j-arkua
‘mouth’	j-ar-
‘head’	krã
‘feather’	j-ar
‘path’	prɨ
‘causativizer’	-n
‘chief’	paʔi
‘to suck’	so
‘to catch’	wɨ
‘to eat, to bite’	ku
‘body’	hǝ
‘to sing, to dance’	ŋrɛ
‘to lay’	j-i, *s-i
‘hard’	tǝt
‘to stand’	j-am
‘thorn’	j-ĩ
‘to speak’	wẽ
‘fart’	pek
‘tree, wood, horn’	ko
‘wood, firewood’	pĩ
‘ashes, dust’	mrɔ
‘to wash’	pe
‘tongue’	j-õtɔ
‘hand’	j-ĩ-
‘hand’	ɲ-ĩkra
‘to kill’	wĩ
‘nest’	j-ase
‘bone’	si
‘to hear, to know’	ma
‘egg’	ŋrɛ
‘stone’	kɛn
‘skin, bark’	kɨ
‘to plant’	krɛ
‘1st person’	ĩj-
‘2nd person’	a-
‘3rd person’	ĩ-
‘3rd person’	s-
‘pus’	j-u, *j-ur
‘tail’	mɨ
‘root’	j-are
‘seed’	sɨ
‘to sit’	j-ã
‘hunger’	prãm
‘earth’	pɨka
‘to come’	tẽm

Notes and References

1. Ramirez . Henri . Vegini . Valdir . França . Maria Cristina Victorino de . Koropó, puri, kamakã e outras línguas do Leste Brasileiro . LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas . 2015 . 15 . 2 . 223–277 . 10.20396/liames.v15i2.8642302. free.
2. Nikulin, Andrey. 2020. Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo. Doctoral dissertation, University of Brasília.
3. Nikulin . Andrey . De Carvalho . Fernando O. . Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: Um panorama . Macabéa – Revista Eletrônica do Netlli . 2019 . 8 . 2 . 255–305 . 10.47295/mren.v8i2.1910. free.
4. Book: Loukotka, Čestmír . Čestmír Loukotka . Classification of South American Indian languages . registration . UCLA Latin American Center . 1968 . Los Angeles.
5. Journal of Language Relationship . 17 . 1–2 . A reconstruction of Proto-Jê phonology and lexicon . Andrey . Nikulin . 10.31826/jlr-2019-171-211 . 93-127 . 2020 . free .
6. Ribeiro . Eduardo Rivail . Nimuendajú was right: The inclusion of the jabutí language family in the Macro-Jê stock . International Journal of American Linguistics . 2010 . 76 . 4 . 517–570 . 10.1086/658056. 2066/86080 . free .