| Yaruro | |
| Nativename: | Pumé |
| Region: | Venezuela |
| Ethnicity: | Yaruro people |
| Speakers: | 7,900 |
| Date: | 2001 census |
| Ref: | e18 |
| Familycolor: | American |
| Fam1: | Esmeralda–Yaruro ? |
| Iso3: | yae |
| Glotto: | pume1238 |
| Glottorefname: | Pumé |
The Yaruro language (also spelled Llaruro or Yaruru; also called Yuapín or Pumé) is an indigenous language spoken by Yaruro people, along the Orinoco, Cinaruco, Meta, and Apure rivers of Venezuela. It is not well classified; it may be an isolate, or distantly related to the extinct Esmeralda language.
The Yaruro people refer to their own language as pũmɛ̃́ mãɛ̃́ ‘language of the Yaruro/Pumé’). The language is vigorously spoken by approximately 9,500 people as of 2015. Speakers live in the central Apure Llanos of western Venezuela, mainly in the Arauca, Cunaviche, Capanaparo,and Cinaruco river areas. In Capuruchano subdivision, the Yaruro do not live close to any rivers.[1]
Pache (2016) considers Yaruro to be related to the Chocoan languages, citing evidence from lexical and sound correspondences. Some shared lexical items between Yaruro and Chocoan (Pache (2016) cites Yaruro and Epena forms from the Intercontinental Dictionary Series):[2]
| Yaruro | Chocoan | |
|---|---|---|
| dac͡ço ‘eye, face,’ c͡ço ‘seed, fruit, nut’ | Epena tautʰu ‘forehead’ | |
| da ‘eye’ (used in complex forms) | Proto-Chocoan **da ‘eye region,’ **da-ˈbu ‘eye,’ Epena ˈtau ‘eye’ | |
| duɾi ‘after’ | Proto-Chocoan **duˈɾi ‘tail’ | |
| ɡõã ‘meat, flesh,’ goe ‘blood’ | Proto-Emberá *uˈa ‘blood’ | |
| hu ‘bone,’ hu c͡çia ‘strong’ | Proto-Chocoan **huˈa ‘arm, hand,’ Epena huaˈtau ‘strong’ | |
| i ‘skin’ | Proto-Emberá *ˈe ‘skin’ | |
| ĩbu ‘nose’ | Proto-Chocoan **kẽˈbu ‘nose’ | |
| ic͡çi ‘hand’ | Epena iˈsia ‘wing’ |
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Saliba-Hodi, Arawak, Bora-Muinane, Choko, Witoto-Okaina, and Waorani language families due to contact.[3]
| English | Yaruro | Hodi | |
|---|---|---|---|
| village | bærʊ-pæ̃ | balo | |
| to drink | ui ‘water’ | woi | |
| to cut | koa | ʰkʷai | |
| to lie down | ãrẽ | ʰjali | |
| fire | kʰõdæ | ʰkule | |
| brother | ajĩ- | hãjẽ ‘little brother’ | |
| "alligator" [caiman] | ari | aulẽ | |
| cloud | ɡõãrã | kʷa | |
| blood | ɡoe | iʰkwə | |
| venom | ɲeetowe | jẽtohai | |
| wasp | mu | mo | |
| to go back/to walk | manau ‘to walk’; mana ‘way’ | mãnã ‘to go back’ |
| English | Yaruro | Proto-Bora-Muinane | |
|---|---|---|---|
| spider | mãkã |
| |
| sweet potato | ʧerame | Muinane ʤírúúmɨba | |
| snake | poana |
| |
| smoke | ʧʰʊ |
| |
| pae |
| ||
| night | pe |
| |
| sun | do |
|
| English | Yaruro | Waorani | |
|---|---|---|---|
| you (plural) | mɛnɛrɔ | mĩnitõ | |
| bee | ẽmi | æamo | |
| path | nõ | taa-dõ | |
| house | hõ | õ-kõ | |
| sky | ãde | õ-õdæ | |
| to sleep | mõã | bõ | |
| aboea | amo | ||
| hot | kʊa-kʊ-a | ãgõã |
| Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Plosive | voiceless | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| voiced | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Affricate | voiceless | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| voiced | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| voiced | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
| Rhotic | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
| Lateral | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| High | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| Mid | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Low | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.[5]
| gloss | Yaruro | |
|---|---|---|
| hand | ichi | |
| foot | taho | |
| man | oí | |
| water | ui | |
| star | boé | |
| earth | dabú | |
| dog | arerí | |
| jaguar | panaumé | |
| snake | póʔo | |
| house | xoʔo | |
| boat | dzyará |