Japanese counter word explained

In Japanese, counter words or counters are measure words used with numbers to count things, actions, and events. Counters are added directly after numbers.[1] There are numerous counters, and different counters are used depending on the kind or shape of nouns that are being described.

In Japanese, as in Chinese and Korean, numerals cannot quantify nouns by themselves (except, in certain cases, for the numbers from one to ten; see below).[2] For example, to express the idea "two dogs" in Japanese one could say either:

but just pasting Japanese: and Japanese: together in either order is ungrammatical. Here is the number "two", is the counter for small animals, is the possessive particle (a reversed "of", similar to the " 's" in "John's dog"), and is the word "dog".

Counters are not independent words; they must appear with a numeric prefix. The number can be imprecise: or, less commonly,, can both be used to mean "some/several/many", and, in questions, "what/how many/how much". For example:

Some nouns prefer Japanese: , as in:

Japanese: 幾晩? "how many nights?"

Japanese: 幾日も行っていた "I was gone for many days."

Counters are similar in function to the word "pieces" in "two pieces of paper" or "cups" in "two cups of coffee". However, they cannot take non-numerical modifiers. So while "two pieces of paper" translates fairly directly as:

"two green pieces of paper" must be rendered as Japanese: 緑の紙二枚, akin to "two pieces of green paper".

Just as in English, different counters can be used to convey different types of quantity.

There are numerous counters, and depending on the kind or shape of nouns the number is describing, different counters are used.

Grammatically, counter words can appear either before or after the noun they count. They generally occur after the noun (following particles), and if used before the noun, they emphasize the quantity; this is a common mistake for English learners of Japanese. For example:

In contrast:

would only be appropriate when emphasizing the number as in responding with "[I] drank two bottles of beer" to "How many beers did you drink?".

Phrase structure involving numerals and counters

In generative grammar, one proposed structure of Japanese nominal phrases includes three layers of functional projections: #P, CaseP, and QuantifierP.[3] Here, #P is placed above NP to explain Japanese's lack of plural morphology, and to make clear the # head is the stem of such morphology. This structure relies on movement in order to satisfy agreement via extended projection principle features.

Substitution of counters

In Japanese, virtually all nouns must use a counter to express number because Japanese lacks singular/plural morphology.[4] In this sense, virtually all Japanese nouns are mass nouns. This grammatical feature can result in situations where one is unable to express the number of a particular object in a syntactically correct way because one does not know, or cannot remember, the appropriate counting word. With quantities from one to ten, this problem can often be sidestepped by using the traditional numerals (see below), which can quantify many nouns without help. For example, "four apples" is Japanese: りんご四個 where is the counter, but can also be expressed, using the traditional numeral four, as Japanese: りんご四つ . These traditional numerals cannot be used to count all nouns, however; some, including nouns for people and animals, require a proper counter (except for 1 and 2 people, which virtually always use variants of the traditional numerals; see exceptions).

Some of the more common counters may substitute for less common ones. For example, Japanese: (see below) is often used for all animals, regardless of size. However, many speakers will prefer to use the traditionally correct counter, Japanese: , when speaking of larger animals such as horses. This yields a range of possible counters, with differing degrees of usage and acceptability – for example, when ordering kushikatsu (fried skewers), one may order them as Japanese: 二串 (two skewers), Japanese: 二本 (two sticks), or Japanese: 二つ (two items), in decreasing order of precision.

Counters may be intentionally misused for humorous, stupid, or insulting effects. For example, the phrase Japanese: 男一匹 ("one man [like an animal]"), uses Japanese: , the counter for animals, instead of the typical counters for people.[5]

Table of traditional numerals

NumeralJapanesePronunciation (romaji)Writing (hiragana)
1Japanese: 一つJapanese: ひとつ
2Japanese: 二つJapanese: ふたつ
3Japanese: 三つJapanese: みっつ
4Japanese: 四つJapanese: よっつ
5Japanese: 五つJapanese: いつつ
6Japanese: 六つJapanese: むっつ
7Japanese: 七つJapanese: ななつ
8Japanese: 八つJapanese: やっつ
9Japanese: 九つJapanese: ここのつ
10Japanese: Japanese: とお

Common counters by category

This is a selective list of some of the more commonly used counting words.

PronunciationJapaneseUse
People and Things
Japanese: Copies of a magazine or newspaper, or other packets of papers
Japanese: だい Cars, bicycles, machines, mechanical devices, household appliances
Japanese: はい, Japanese: ぱい, Japanese: ばい Cups and glasses of drink, spoonsful; cuttlefish, octopuses, crabs, squid, abalone, boats (slang)
Japanese: ひき, Japanese: ぴき, Japanese: びき Small animals, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, oni (demons/ogres)
Japanese: ほん, Japanese: ぽん, Japanese: ぼん frequently used word Long, thin objects: rivers, roads, train tracks, ties, pencils, bottles, guitars; also, metaphorically, telephone calls, train or bus routes, movies (see also:), points or bounds in sports events. Although Japanese: also means "book", the counter for books is .
Japanese: かい, Japanese: がい Number of floors, stories
Japanese: ,,, or frequently used word Implies that the item is small and/or round.[6] Japanese: is also used for military units.
Japanese: まい frequently used word Thin, flat objects: sheets of paper, photographs, plates, articles of clothing (see also:)
Japanese: めい People (polite) (Japanese: means "name")
Japanese: めん Broad, flat objects: mirrors, boards for board games (chess, igo, shogi), stages of computer games, walls of a room, tennis courts
Japanese: にん People (but see table of exceptions below)
Japanese: Japanese: or People, used in the words Japanese: 一人 (ひとり) and Japanese: 二人 (ふたり)
Japanese: さつ Books
Japanese: Japanese: [[wikt:つ#Etymology_4|つ]]frequently used word General-purpose counter, used as part of the indigenous Japanese numbers Japanese: 一つ ("one thing"), Japanese: 二つ ("two things"), Japanese: 三つ ("three things"), etc.
Japanese: Stories, episodes of TV series, etc.
Time, Calendar, etc.
Japanese: びょう Seconds
Japanese: ふん, Japanese: ぷん Minutes
Japanese: がつ, also Japanese: つき Months of the year. Month-long periods when read (see also:)
Japanese: はく, Japanese: ぱく Nights of a stay
Japanese: Hours of the day
Japanese: じかん Hour-long periods
Japanese: Day of the month
Japanese: かげつ , Japanese: 箇月Month-long periods (see also:). Japanese: is normally abbreviated using a small katakana Japanese: [[ヶ]] in modern Japanese. Alternatively Japanese: , hiragana Japanese: , small katakana Japanese: and full-size katakana Japanese: & Japanese: can also be seen, although only Japanese: is similarly frequent.
Japanese: ねん Years, school years (grades); not years of age
Japanese: にち Days of the month (but see table of exceptions below)
Japanese: さい (or)Years of age (Japanese: is used informally as a ryakuji)
Japanese: しゅう Weeks
Extent, Frequency, etc.
Japanese: ばい Multiples, -fold as in "twofold"
Japanese: ばん Position, turn, sports matches
Japanese: , also Japanese: たび frequently used word Occurrences, number of times, degrees of temperature or angle (see also:).
Japanese: じょう Tatami mats. The kanji Japanese: is also read and is the same one used for the mats. The room size of a washitsu in Japan is given as a number of mats, for example 4½
Japanese: かい frequently used word Occurrences, number of times (see also:)

Extended list of counters

This list also includes some counters and usages that are rarely used or not widely known; other words can also be used as counters more sporadically.

PronunciationJapaneseUse
Japanese: Scene of a play
Japanese: ばい Multiples, -fold as in "twofold"
Japanese: ばん Nights (see also:)
Japanese: ばん Position, platform for a train line, turn, sports matches
Japanese: Small fish and shrimps (used in the fish trade; most people say instead)
Japanese: Copies of a magazine or newspaper, or other packets of papers
Japanese: ぶん Sentences
Japanese: びょう Seconds
Japanese: ちゃく Suits of clothing (see also:)
Japanese: ちょう Long, narrow things such as guns, sticks of ink, palanquins, rickshaws, violins
Japanese: ちょう Sheets, pages, leaves, tools, scissors, saws, trousers, pistols, cakes of tofu, town blocks, servings at a restaurant
Japanese: ちょう Town blocks
Japanese: だい Generations, historical periods, reigns
Japanese: だい Cars, bicycles, machines, mechanical devices, household appliances
Japanese: だん levels, ranks, steps (of stairs).
Japanese: だんらく Paragraphs
Japanese: , also Japanese: たび Occurrences, number of times, degrees of temperature or angle (see also:).
Japanese: ふで Sequences of letters or drawings that you write or draw without removing your pen off the paper. Not to be confused with (Japanese: ) below.
Japanese: ふく, Japanese: ぷく Bowls of (powdered green tea); packets or doses of powdered medicine; puffs (of, e.g., a cigarette); rests or breaks
Japanese: ふく, Japanese: ぷく Hanging scrolls
Japanese: ふん, Japanese: ぷん Minutes
Japanese: ふり Swords
Japanese: がっきゅう Classes (in pre-university education)
Japanese: がつ, also Japanese: つき Months of the year. Month-long periods when read (see also:)
Japanese: Words
Japanese: ごう small container (e.g. rice cup, sake cup)
Japanese: ごん, also Japanese: こと Words
Japanese: Suits of armour, sets of furniture
Japanese: ぎょう Lines of text
Japanese: はく Nights of a stay
Japanese: はい, Japanese: ぱい, Japanese: ばい Cups and glasses of drink, spoonfuls, cuttlefish, octopuses, crabs, squid, abalone, boats (slang)
Japanese: はい Losses (sports bouts)
Japanese: はこ Boxes
Japanese: はり Umbrellas, parasols, tents
Japanese: はしら gods, memorial tablets
Japanese: はつ, Japanese: ぱつ Gunshots, bullets, aerial fireworks; orgasms, sex acts
Japanese: ひき, Japanese: ぴき Small animals, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, oni (ogres)
Japanese: ひん, Japanese: ぴん Parts of a meal, courses (see also:)
Japanese: ひつ, Japanese: ぴつ pieces of land and number of people
Japanese: , Japanese: Number of (foot)steps
Japanese: ほん, Japanese: ぽん, Japanese: ぼん Long, thin objects: rivers, roads, train tracks, ties, pencils, bottles, guitars; also, metaphorically, telephone calls (see also:), train or bus routes, movies, home runs, points or bounds in sports events. Although Japanese: also means "book", the counter for books is .
Japanese: ひょう, Japanese: ぴょう Votes
Japanese: ひょうし, Japanese: びょうし Musical beats
Japanese: Letters, kanji, kana
Japanese: Children. As in "father of two (children)", etc.
Japanese: Hours of the day
Japanese: じかん Hour-long periods
Japanese: じょう Tatami mats. The kanji Japanese: is also read and is the same one used for the mats. The room size of a washitsu in Japan is given as a number of mats, for example 4½
Japanese: じょう Pills/capsules
Japanese: じょう Articles of law, thin objects, rays or streams of light, streaks of smoke or lightning
Japanese: Day of the month
Japanese: Frames
Japanese: Lessons
Japanese: かぶ Stocks; nursery trees
Japanese: かげつ , Japanese: 箇月Month-long periods (see also:). Japanese: is normally abbreviated using a small katakana Japanese: in modern Japanese. Alternatively Japanese: , hiragana Japanese: , small katakana Japanese: and full-size katakana Japanese: & Japanese: can also be seen, although only Japanese: is similarly frequent.
Japanese: かい Occurrences, number of times (see also:)
Japanese: かい, Japanese: がい Number of floors, storeys
Japanese: かこく , Japanese: 箇国Countries
Japanese: かこくご , Japanese: 箇国語(National) languages
Japanese: かく Strokes in kanji
Japanese: かん Pieces of nigiri-zushi
Japanese: かん Warships
Japanese: けいとう Bus routes
Japanese: けん Abstract matters and cases
Japanese: けん, Japanese: げん Houses
Japanese: Aircraft, machines
Japanese: Graves, wreaths, CPUs, reactors, elevators, dams
Japanese: きん Loaves of bread
Japanese: きれ Slices (of bread, cake, sashimi etc.)
Japanese: ,,, or General measure word, used when there is no specific counter. Japanese: is also used for military units.
Japanese: Houses (Japanese: means "door")
Japanese: こう Schools
Japanese: こう Drafts of a manuscript
Japanese: こう Banks
Japanese: こま , Frames, panels. Japanese: is virtually unused nowadays.
Japanese: こん shots (of drink)
Japanese: Sections, city districts
Japanese: Haiku, senryū
Japanese: くち (Bank) accounts, donations (Japanese: means "opening" or "entrance")
Japanese: くみ Groups, a pair of people (twins, a husband and a wife, dancers, etc.)
Japanese: くらす School classes
Japanese: きゃく Desks, chairs, long-stemmed glasses
Japanese: きゃく Pairs of cup and saucer
Japanese: きょく Pieces of music
Japanese: きょく Board game matches (chess, igo, shogi, mahjong); radio stations, television stations
Japanese: まい Thin, flat objects, sheets of paper, photographs, plates, articles of clothing (see also:)
Japanese: まき or Japanese: かん Rolls, scrolls, kan for volumes of book
Japanese: まく Theatrical acts
Japanese: めい People (polite) (Japanese: means "name")
Japanese: めん Mirrors, boards for board games (chess, igo, shogi), stages of computer games, walls of a room, tennis courts
Japanese: もん Cannons
Japanese: もん Questions
Japanese: ねん Years, school years (grades); not years of age
Japanese: にち Days of the month (but see table of exceptions below)
Japanese: にん People (but see table of exceptions below)
Japanese: にんまえ Food portions (without exceptions, unlike above)
Japanese: おり Boxes made of folded paper (compare to above, which refers to boxes in general)
Japanese: ぺーじ , Pages
Japanese: れい Cases, examples
Japanese: れい Bows during worship at a shrine
Japanese: れん finger rings or necklace loops
Japanese: Japanese: or People, used in the words Japanese: 一人 (ひとり) and Japanese: 二人 (ふたり).
Japanese: りん Wheels, flowers
Japanese: りょう Railway cars
Japanese: さい or Years of age
Japanese: さお Chests of drawers, flags
Japanese: さつ Books
Japanese: せき Seats, rakugo shows, (drinking) parties
Japanese: せき Ships, half of a pair (e.g., half of a folding screen), item carried in a bundle (fish, birds, arrows etc.)
Japanese: しな Parts of a meal, courses (see also:)
Japanese: しゃ used for businesses, i.e. Japanese: 会社
Japanese: しき Sets of things, such as documents or furniture
Japanese: しょう Wins (sports bouts)
Japanese: しゅ Tanka
Japanese: しゅう Weeks
Japanese: しゅるい or Japanese: しゅ or Kinds, species
Japanese: そく Pairs of footwear, pairs of socks, stockings, tabi
Japanese: そう Pairs
Japanese: たば bundles (of banknotes), bunches (of flowers, vegetables), sheaves
Japanese: たい Images, statues, person's remains, dolls, androids, humanoid robots
Japanese: たわら Bags of rice
Japanese: てき Drops of liquid
Japanese: てん Points, dots, pieces of a set
Japanese: とう Large animals, cattle, elephants, whales, dolphins, butterflies (Japanese: means "head")
Japanese: とき Time periods, a sixth of either day or night (in the traditional, obsolete way of telling time). See also:
Japanese: とおり Combinations, puzzle solutions
Japanese: Japanese: Used as part of the indigenous Japanese numbers Japanese: 一つ, Japanese: 二つ, Japanese: 三つ etc.
Japanese: つう Letters
Japanese: つぼ Commonly used unit of area equal to 3.3 square metres.
Japanese: つぶ Almonds, grain
Japanese: つうわ Telephone calls (see also:)
Japanese: , Japanese: , Japanese: Birds, rabbits. Japanese: means "feather" or "wing."
Japanese: Bundles
Japanese: Stories, episodes of TV series, etc.
Japanese: Nights (see also:)
Japanese: ぜん Pairs of chopsticks; bowls of rice

Euphonic changes

Systematic changes occur when particular numbers precede counters that begin with certain phonemes. For example, Japanese: + Japanese: → Japanese: 一回 . The details are listed in the table below.

This can be the result of the morpho-phonological phenomenon of historical sound changes,[7] as shown by the voicing of Japanese: :

change from glottal pronounced as /[h]/ to bilabial pronounced as /[p]/.

It may also be that some counters carry features which are responsible for for singular, dual, and plural nouns, where singular carries [+singular, −augmented] features, dual carries [−singular, −augmented] features, and plural carries [−singular, +augmented] features.[8]

These changes are followed fairly consistently but exceptions and variations between speakers do exist. Where variations are common, more than one alternative is listed.

is replaced by either or (Japanese: じゅっ/じっ) followed by a doubled consonant before the voiceless consonants as shown in the table. is the older form, but it has been replaced by in the speech of recent generations.

Numeralk- (Japanese: Japanese: きゃ etc.)s/sh- (Japanese: Japanese: しゃ etc.)t/ch- (Japanese: Japanese: ちゃ etc.)h- (Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: ひゃ Japanese: ひゅ Japanese: ひょ)f- (Japanese: )p- (Japanese: etc.)w- (Japanese: )
1 Japanese: いっか Japanese: いっさ Japanese: いった Japanese: いっぱ Japanese: いっぷ Japanese: いっぱ
3 Japanese: さんば Japanese: さんぷ Japanese: さんば
4 Japanese: よんは Japanese: よんぱ Japanese: よんふ Japanese: よんぷ Japanese: よわ Japanese: よんわ Japanese: よんば
6 Japanese: ろっか Japanese: ろっぱ Japanese: ろっぷ Japanese: ろっぱ Japanese: ろくわ Japanese: ろっぱ
8 Japanese: はっか Japanese: はっさ Japanese: はった Japanese: はっぱ Japanese: はっぷ Japanese: はっぱ Japanese: はっぱ Japanese: はちわ
10 Japanese: じっか Japanese: じゅっか Japanese: じっさ Japanese: じゅっさ Japanese: じった Japanese: じゅった Japanese: じっぱ Japanese: じゅっぱ Japanese: じっぷ Japanese: じゅっぷ Japanese: じっぱ Japanese: じゅっぱ Japanese: じっぱ
100 Japanese: ひゃっか Japanese: ひゃっぱ Japanese: ひゃっぷ Japanese: ひゃっぱ
1000 Japanese: せんば Japanese: せんぷ
10000 Japanese: まんば Japanese: まんぷ
Japanese: なんば Japanese: なんぷ

Exceptions

The traditional numbers are used by and for young children to give their ages, instead of using the age counter Japanese: (or Japanese: ) .

Some counters, notably Japanese: and Japanese: , use the traditional numerals for some numbers as shown in the table below. Other uses of traditional numbers are usually restricted to certain phrases, such as Japanese: 一月 and Japanese: 二月 (one and two months respectively), Japanese: 一言 (a single word) and Japanese: 一度 (once).

Sometimes common numbers that have a derived meaning are written using different kanji. For example, (alone) is written Japanese: 独り, and (once more, another time) is normally written Japanese: 再び instead of Japanese: 二度. The counter for months (derived from kanji Japanese: 箇月) is commonly written Japanese: ヶ月.

and are alternatives for 7, and are alternatives for 4, and and are alternatives for 9. In those three pairs of options,, and respectively are more commonly used. Some counters, however, notably Japanese: (people), Japanese: (month of the year), Japanese: (day of the month, days), Japanese: (time of day) and Japanese: 時間 (hours) take certain alternatives only. These are shown in the table below.

While Japanese: (occurrences) and Japanese: (0.01 yen, now rarely used) follow the euphonic changes listed above, homophones Japanese: (stories/floors of a building) and Japanese: (1000) are slightly different as shown below, although these differences are not followed by all speakers. Thus Japanese: 三階 ("third floor") can be read either or, while Japanese: 三回 ("three times") can only be read .

NumeralJapanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese: Japanese:
1Japanese: ひとつ
2Japanese: ふたつ
3Japanese: みっつ
4Japanese: よっつ
5Japanese: いつつ
6Japanese: むっつ
7Japanese: ななつ
8Japanese: やっつ
9Japanese: ここのつ
10Japanese: とお
14
17
19
20
24
Japanese:

Ordinal numbers

In general, the counter words mentioned above are cardinal numbers, in that they indicate quantity. To transform a counter word into an ordinal number that denotes position in a sequence, Japanese: is added to the end of the counter. Thus "one time" would be translated as Japanese: 一回, whereas "the first time" would be translated as Japanese: 一回目 .

This rule is inconsistent, however, as counters without the suffix are often used interchangeably with cardinal and ordinal meanings. For example, Japanese: 三階 can mean both "three floors" and "third floor."

Periods of time

To express a period of time one may add Japanese: to the following words: Japanese: , Japanese: , Japanese: , Japanese: (and its irregular readings aside from), Japanese: , Japanese: ヶ月 and Japanese: . Usage varies depending on the word, though. For example, omitting in the case of Japanese: 時間 would be a mistake, whereas and are both in frequent use. In addition, is rarely heard due to essentially being superfluous, the already functioning to express the length.

Counter for rabbits

The counter for rabbits is (Japanese: ), which is the same as the counter for birds species. Usually,  (Japanese: ) is used for "small-to-medium-size animals",[9] therefore, the counter for rabbits is an exception. There are many theories about why (Japanese: ) is used for rabbits instead of  (Japanese: ).

One of the theories is that in Edo-era, eating four-legged animals was strictly forbidden by the government, and people were not allowed to consume rabbit meat.[10] [11] Then, people started to categorize rabbits as birds so that they can consume rabbit meat, and the counter was also changed from (Japanese: ) to (Japanese: ). Another theory is that taste of rabbit meat is similar to bird meat, and in addition, the rabbits were captured using a net just like birds so (Japanese: ) is used instead of  (Japanese: ).[12] Takemitsu says that the origin of the word rabbit, Japanese: , is Japanese: which describes birds feather: therefore, the counter, (Japanese: ), is used for rabbits.[13]

See also

References

OBJ:object

External links

Notes and References

  1. Miura . Akira . 1996 . Handbook of Japanese Grammar . The Modern Language Journal . 80 . 3 . 424–425. 10.2307/329477 . 329477 .
  2. Book: Topics in Constraint-Based Grammar of Japanese. 1999. Springer Netherlands. 978-0-7923-5611-0. Gunji. Takao. Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy. 68. Dordrecht. 10.1007/978-94-011-5272-3. Hasida. Kôiti.
  3. Watanabe. Akira. February 2006. Functional Projections of Nominals in Japanese: Syntax of Classifiers*. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 24. 1. 241–306. 10.1007/s11049-005-3042-4. 33599661. 0167-806X.
  4. Book: Handbook of Quantifiers in Natural Language. 2012. Springer Netherlands. 978-94-007-2680-2. Keenan. Edward L.. Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy. 90. Dordrecht. 10.1007/978-94-007-2681-9. Paperno. Denis.
  5. Web site: ja:男一匹とは . What is 'otoko ippiki'? . https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%94%B7%E4%B8%80%E5%8C%B9-453322 . 2023-01-10 . ja:コトバンク . 日本国語大辞典 . ja . ja:一人前の男子ということを強めていう語。また、しっかりした男。. Used to emphasize the idea of a fully fledged young man. Can also refer to a man with a strong character..
  6. Web site: Counting Small Objects in Japanese with 個 | PuniPuniJapan. 15 August 2013 .
  7. Kobuchi-Philip. Mana. May 2007. Floating numerals and floating quantifiers. Lingua. 117. 5. 814–831. 10.1016/j.lingua.2006.03.008. 0024-3841.
  8. Watanabe. Akira. 2017-11-10. The mass/count distinction in Japanese from the perspective of partitivity. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics. 2. 1. 98. 10.5334/gjgl.116. 2397-1835. free.
  9. Miura . Akira . Tanimori . Masahiro . 1996 . Handbook of Japanese Grammar . The Modern Language Journal . 80 . 3 . 424 . 10.2307/329477 . 329477 . 0026-7902.
  10. Book: Tsurumi, Noriaki . ja:干支ってなぁ~に? . Chikuma Shubansha . 2000 . Japan . 92 . Japanese.
  11. Book: ja:Japonica時事百科 : 大日本百科事典編 . Shogakukan . 1980 . Japan . 85–86 . Japanese.
  12. Book: ja:平凡社大百科事典 . Heibinsya . 1984 . Japan . 221–222 . Japanese.
  13. Book: Takemitsu, Makoto . ja:歴史から生まれた日常語の由来辞典 . Tokyodo Shuppan. . 1998 . Japan . Japanese.