Foxtail millet explained

Foxtail millet, scientific name Setaria italica (synonym Panicum italicum L.), is an annual grass grown for human food. It is the second-most widely planted species of millet, and the most grown millet species in Asia. The oldest evidence of foxtail millet cultivation was found along the ancient course of the Yellow River in Cishan, China, carbon dated to be from around 8,000 years before present.[1] Foxtail millet has also been grown in India since antiquity.

Other names for the species include dwarf setaria, foxtail bristle-grass, giant setaria, green foxtail, Italian millet, German millet, and Hungarian millet.

Description

Foxtail millet is an annual grass with slim, vertical, leafy stems which can reach a height of 120-.

The seedhead is a dense, hairy panicle 5- long.

The small seeds, around 2mm in diameter, are encased in a thin, papery hull which is easily removed in threshing. Seed color varies greatly between varieties.

Taxonomy

Synonyms:[2]

Common names for foxtail millet in other languages spoken in the countries where it is cultivated include:

su (粟). Also called xiǎomǐ (小米), which is the term commonly used for the grain after it has been husked (husks have been removed); unhusked grain is called guzi (穀子) in Northern China.[7]

Anyak

Hanjangmilen

Cultivation

In India, foxtail millet is still an important crop in its arid and semi-arid regions.[9] In South India, it has been a staple diet among people for a long time from the Sangam period. It is referred to often in old Tamil texts and is commonly associated with Lord Muruga and his consort Valli.

In Karbi Anglong district of Assam, India, millets have been an integral part of the food system of the Karbis as well as the Jhum fields. Hanjangmilen, Karbi name of foxtail millets have been visible in the Jhum fields in the past. But today it is hardly visible in the Jhum fields. But farmers are now bringing the traditional crop back into their food system which needs little water, grows well on poor soil, is fast-growing and suffers from very few diseases.

In China, foxtail millet was the main staple food in the north before Sung Dynasty, when wheat started to become the main staple food. It is still the most common millet and one of the main food crops in the dry northern part of the country, especially among the poor. In Southeast Asia, foxtail millet is commonly cultivated in its dry, upland regions. In Europe and North America it is planted at a moderate scale for hay and silage, and to a more limited extent for birdseed.

In the northern Philippines, foxtail millet was once an important staple crop, until its later replacement by wet-rice and sweet potato cultivation.[10]

It is a warm season crop, typically planted in late spring. Harvest for hay or silage can be made in 65–70 days with a typical yield of NaNkg/ha of green matter or NaNkg/ha of hay. Harvest for grain is in 75–90 days with a typical yield of NaNkg/ha of grain. Its early maturity and efficient use of available water make it suitable for raising in dry areas.

Pests

Diseases of foxtail millet include leaf and head blast disease caused by Magnaporthe grisea, smut disease caused by Ustilago crameri, and green ear caused by Sclerospora graminicola. The unharvested crop is also susceptible to attack by birds and rodents. Insect pests include Atherigona atripalpis, the foxtail millet shoot fly.[11]

Insects

Insect pests include:[12]

Leaf feeders
Earhead feeders
Others

History and domestication

The wild ancestor of foxtail millet has been securely identified as Setaria viridis, which is interfertile with foxtail millet; wild or weedy forms of foxtail millet also exist. Zohary and Hopf note that the primary difference between the wild and cultivated forms is "their seed dispersal biology. Wild and weedy forms shatter their seed while the cultivars retain them."[13] The reference genome for foxtail millet was completed in 2012.[9] [14] [15] Genetic comparisons also confirm that S. viridis is the antecedent of S. italica.[9]

The earliest evidence of the cultivation of this grain comes from the Peiligang culture of China, which also cultivated Panicum miliaceum, but foxtail millet became the predominant grain only with the Yangshao culture.[13] More recently, the Cishan culture of China has been identified as the earliest to domesticate foxtail millet around 6500–5500 BC.[16] [17]

The earliest evidence for foxtail millet cultivation outside of its native distribution is at Chengtoushan in the Middle Yangtze River region, dating to around 4000 BC. In southern China, foxtail millet reached the Chengdu Plain (Baodun) at around 2700 BC[18] and Guangxi (near the Vietnamese border) at around 3000 BC. Foxtail millet also reached Taiwan (Nankuanli, Dapenkeng culture) at around 2800 BC[19] and the Tibetan Plateau (Karuo) at around 3000 BC.[20]

Foxtail millet likely reached Southeast Asia via multiple routes.[20] The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in Southeast Asia comes from various sites in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley in central Thailand, with the site at Non Pa Wai providing the earliest date with direct AMS dating to around 2300 BC.[20] [21]

The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in East Siberia comes from the archaeological site at Krounovka 1 in Primorsky Krai, dating to around 3620–3370 BC.[9] [22] The earliest direct evidence for foxtail millet in Korea come from Dongsam-dong Shell Midden, a Jeulmun site in southern Korea, with a direct AMS date of around 3,360 BC.[9] [23] In Japan, the earliest evidence for foxtail millet comes from the Jōmon site at Usujiri in Hokkaido, dating to around 4,000 BP.[9]

Foxtail millet arrived in Europe later; carbonized seeds first appear in the second millennium BC in central Europe. The earliest definite evidence for its cultivation in the Near East is at the Iron Age levels at Tille Hoyuk in Turkey, with an uncorrected radiocarbon date of about 600 BC.[13]

Agronomic genetics

As with some other cereals the waxy gene contributes to glutinousness. The wild relative Setaria viridis provides genetic resources useful for foxtail breeding.[24] [25]

One study found that – for the rabi crop in Tamil Nadu – breeding for foxtail yield should begin from germplasm with the most productive tillers, medium panicle length and medium duration.[26] [27] [28]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Alcohol and its Role in the Evolution of Human Society. Ian S Hornsey. 2012. 254–256 (chapter 4.7.3).
  2. Web site: The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species. 7 January 2015.
  3. Web site: Chapter 15. Indic Transformation: The Sanskritization of Jawa and the Javanization of the Bharata . Supomno . S . The Austronesians - ANU Press . ANU Press. 331 . 5 Dec 2021.
  4. Web site: A dictionary of the Kashmiri language . 1932 .
  5. Web site: Carian Umum - Sekoi . Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu - PRPM. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka - DBP. 5 Dec 2021.
  6. Web site: Carian Umum - Jawawut. Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu - PRPM. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka - DBP. 5 Dec 2021.
  7. Book: Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s-1990s . Lillian M. Li . 93–94 . Stanford University Press . 2010 . 978-0804771818 .
  8. Book: A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages.. Monier Williams. 1899 .
  9. Book: Diao . Xianmin . Genetics and Genomics of Setaria . Jia . Guanqing . Andrew . Doust . Xianmin Diao. 19 . 2017 . 61–72 . 2363-9601 . 10.1007/978-3-319-45105-3_4 . Origin and Domestication of Foxtail Millet . Plant Genetics and Genomics: Crops and Models . 978-3-319-45103-9.
  10. Web site: Sheahan. C.M. Plant guide for foxtail millet (Setaria italica). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Cape May Plant Materials Center. 9 May 2017.
  11. Book: Insect Pests of Millets: Systematics, Bionomics, and Management. 2017. A.. Kalaisekar. P.G.. Padmaja. V.R.. Bhagwat. J.V.. Patil. Academic Press (AP). 978-0-12-804243-4.
  12. Book: Kalaisekar, A. Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management. Elsevier. London. 2017. 978-0-12-804243-4. 967265246.
  13. Book: Domestication of Plants in the Old World . Daniel . Zohary . Maria . Hopf . 3rd . Oxford University Press (OUP). 2000. 978-0198503569. 86–88.
  14. Zhang. Gengyun. Liu. Xin. Quan. Zhiwu. Cheng. Shifeng. Xu. Xun. Pan. Shengkai. Xie. Min. Zeng. Peng. Yue. Zhen. Wang. Wenliang. Tao. Ye. Bian. Chao. Han. Changlei. Xia. Qiuju. Peng. Xiaohua. Cao. Rui. Yang. Xinhua. Zhan. Dongliang. Hu. Jingchu. Zhang. Yinxin. Li. Henan. Li. Hua. Li. Ning. Wang. Junyi. Wang. Chanchan. Wang. Renyi. Guo. Tao. Cai. Yanjie. Liu. Chengzhang. Xiang. Haitao. Shi. Qiuxiang. Huang. Ping. Chen. Qingchun. Li. Yingrui. Wang. Jun. Zhao. Zhihai. Wang. Jian. 3. Genome sequence of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) provides insights into grass evolution and biofuel potential. Nature Biotechnology. 30. 6. 2012. 549–554. 1087-0156. 10.1038/nbt.2195. 22580950. free.
  15. Bennetzen. Jeffrey L. Schmutz. Jeremy. Wang. Hao. Percifield. Ryan. Hawkins. Jennifer. Pontaroli. Ana C. Estep. Matt. Feng. Liang. Vaughn. Justin N. Grimwood. Jane. Jenkins. Jerry. Barry. Kerrie. Lindquist. Erika. Hellsten. Uffe. Deshpande. Shweta. Wang. Xuewen. Wu. Xiaomei. Mitros. Therese. Triplett. Jimmy. Yang. Xiaohan. Ye. Chu-Yu. Mauro-Herrera. Margarita. Wang. Lin. Li. Pinghua. Sharma. Manoj. Sharma. Rita. Ronald. Pamela C. Panaud. Olivier. Kellogg. Elizabeth A. Brutnell. Thomas P. Doust. Andrew N. Tuskan. Gerald A. Rokhsar. Daniel. Devos. Katrien M. 3. Reference genome sequence of the model plant Setaria. Nature Biotechnology. 30. 6. 2012. 555–561. 1087-0156. 10.1038/nbt.2196. 22580951. 4003879. free.
  16. Stevens. C. J.. Murphy. C.. Roberts. R.. Lucas. L.. Silva. F.. Fuller. D. Q.. 3. Between China and South Asia: A Middle Asian corridor of crop dispersal and agricultural innovation in the Bronze Age. The Holocene. 26. 10. 2016. 1541–1555. 0959-6836. 10.1177/0959683616650268. 27942165. 5125436. 2016Holoc..26.1541S.
  17. Purugganan . Michael D. . Fuller . Dorian Q. . The nature of selection during plant domestication . . . 457 . 7231 . 2009 . 0028-0836 . 10.1038/nature07895 . 843–848. 19212403 . 2009Natur.457..843P . 205216444 .
  18. Guedes . Jade d'Alpoim . 55279328 . etal . Site of Baodun yields earliest evidence for the spread of rice and foxtail millet agriculture to south-west China . Antiquity . 2013 . 87 . 337 . 758–771 . 10.1017/S0003598X00049449.
  19. Bellwood. Peter. Peter Bellwood. The Checkered Prehistory of Rice Movement Southwards as a Domesticated Cereal—from the Yangzi to the Equator. Rice. 2011. 4. 93. 93–103. 10.1007/s12284-011-9068-9. free. 2011Rice....4...93B . 1885/58842. free.
  20. Book: Castillo. Cristina. Bellina. Bérénice. 50 Years of Archaeology in Southeast Asia. 2010. 978-6167339023. Still too fragmentary and dependent upon chance? Advances in the study of early Southeast Asian archaeobotany. River Books .
  21. Weber. Steve. Rice or millets: early farming strategies in prehistoric central Thailand. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 2. 2. 79–88. 2010. 10.1007/s12520-010-0030-3. 2010ArAnS...2...79W . 140535295.
  22. Kuzmin . Yaroslav V. . The beginnings of prehistoric agriculture in the Russian Far East: Current evidence and concepts . Documenta Praehistorica . 40 . 2013 . 1–12 . 10.4312/dp.40.1. free .
  23. Crawford. Gary W.. Lee. Gyoung-Ah. Agricultural origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity. 77. 295. 2015. 87–95. 0003-598X. 10.1017/S0003598X00061378. 163060564 .
  24. 4 . 2022 . Sun . Yanqing . Shang . Lianguang . Zhu . Qian-Hao . Fan . Longjiang . Guo . Longbiao . 27 . 391–401 . Trends in Plant Science . 1360-1385 . 244081566 . 34782248 . 10.1016/j.tplants.2021.10.006 . Twenty years of plant genome sequencing: achievements and challenges.
  25. 2020 . 10. 3 . Mamidi . Sujan . Healey . Adam . Huang . Pu . Grimwood . Jane . Jenkins . Jerry . Barry . Kerrie . Sreedasyam . Avinash . Shu . Shengqiang . Lovell . John T. . Feldman . Maximilian . Wu . Jinxia . Yu . Yunqing . Chen . Cindy . Johnson . Jenifer . Sakakibara . Hitoshi . Kiba . Takatoshi . Sakurai . Tetsuya . Tavares . Rachel . Nusinow . Dmitri A. . Baxter . Ivan . Schmutz . Jeremy . Brutnell . Thomas P. . Kellogg . Elizabeth A. . 38 . . 1087-0156 . 1203–1210 . 222151529 . 10.1038/s41587-020-0681-2 . A genome resource for green millet Setaria viridis enables discovery of agronomically valuable loci. 33020633 . 7536120 .
  26. 3. 2012. 33. 328–343. Lata. Charu. Gupta. Sarika. Prasad. Manoj. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 0738-8551. Foxtail millet: a model crop for genetic and genomic studies in bioenergy grasses. 10.3109/07388551.2012.716809. 22985089 .
  27. 1. 2022. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 99. 25–34. Ingle. Krishnananda P.. Suprasanna. P. Narkhede. Gopal Wasudeo. Ceasar. Antony. Abdi. Gholamreza. Raina. Aamir. Moharil. M. P.. Singh. Atul. Plant Growth Regulation. 0167-6903. Biofortified foxtail millet: towards a more nourishing future. 10.1007/s10725-022-00900-2.
  28. 1. 2. 2010. 140–147. A.. Nirmalakumari. Mani. Vetriventhan. Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding. 0975-928X. 82737674. Characterization of foxtail millet germplasm collections for yield contributing traits.

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