Danube Explained

Danube
Map:
Id:Q1653
Stroke-Color:
  1. 4287f5
Length Km:1500
Subdivision Type1:Countries
Subdivision Type5:Cities
Length:2850km (1,770miles)[1]
Width Min:Middle Danube (Iron Gates) ; Lower Danube (Brăila)
Width Avg:Upper Danube ; Middle Danube to ; Lower Danube to [2] [3]
Width Max:Middle Danube ; Lower Danube [4]
Depth Min: (Upper Danube)
Depth Avg:Upper Danube ; Middle Danube to, (Iron Gates); Lower Danube [5]
Depth Max:Middle Danube (Iron Gates) ; Lower Danube
Discharge1 Location:Before the Danube Delta
Discharge1 Min:1790m3/s
Discharge1 Avg:(Period: 1999–2023) [6] (Period: 1840–2006) 6471m3/s(Period: 1931–2010) 6510m3/s(Period: 1970–2015) 6546m3/s[7]
Discharge1 Max:15900m3/s
Discharge5 Location:Passau, Bavaria, Germany
before town
Discharge5 Avg:580m3/s
Discharge4 Location:Vienna, Austria
Discharge4 Avg:1900m3/s
Discharge3 Location:Budapest, Hungary
Discharge3 Avg:2350m3/s
Discharge2 Location:Belgrade, Serbia
Discharge2 Avg:5600m3/s
Source1:Breg
Source1 Location:Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source1 Coordinates:48.0956°N 8.155°W
Source1 Elevation:1078m (3,537feet)
Source2 Location:St. Georgen im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source2 Coordinates:48.1067°N 8.2808°W
Source2 Elevation:940m (3,080feet)
Source Confluence Location:Donaueschingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source Confluence Coordinates:47.9508°N 8.5203°W
Mouth:Danube Delta
Mouth Location:Romania
Mouth Coordinates:45.2175°N 29.7614°W
Basin Size:801463km2

The Danube (; see also other names) is the second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest south into the Black Sea. A large and historically important river, it was once a frontier of the Roman Empire. In the 21st century, it connects ten European countries, running through their territories or marking a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2850sp=usNaNsp=us, passing through or bordering Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, and Ukraine. Among the many cities on the river are four national capitals: Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade. Its drainage basin amounts to 817000km2 and extends into nine more countries.

The Danube's longest headstream Breg rises in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, while the river carries its name from its source confluence in the palace park in Donaueschingen onwards. Since ancient times, the Danube has been a traditional trade route in Europe. Today, 2415km (1,501miles) of its total length are navigable. The Danube is linked to the North Sea via the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, connecting the Danube at Kelheim with the Main at Bamberg. The river is also an important source of hydropower and drinking water.

The Danube river basin is home to such fish species as pike, zander, huchen, Wels catfish, burbot and tench. It is also home to numerous diverse carp and sturgeon, as well as salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube Delta and the lower portion of the river.

Names and etymology

Name history

Today the river carries its name from its source confluence in Donaueschingen, Germany, to its discharge into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.

The river was known to the ancient Greeks as the Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Istros (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Ἴστρος)[8] from a root possibly also encountered in the ancient name of the Dniester (Latin: Danaster in Latin, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Tiras in Greek) and akin to Iranic Iranian languages: turos 'swift' and Sanskrit Sanskrit: iṣiras (Sanskrit: इषिरस्) 'swift', from the PIE, 'to flow'.[9]

In the Middle Ages, the Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Tiras was borrowed into Italian as Italian: Tyrlo and into Turkic languages as Tyrla; the latter was further borrowed into Romanian as a regionalism (Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: Turlă).[9]

The Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas,[10] "the bringer of luck".[11]

The Middle Mongolian name for the Danube was transliterated as Tho-na in 1829 by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat.[12]

See also Wiktionary:

  1. Latin: [[wikt:Danubius#Latin|Danubius]], Dānuvius; [[wikt:Ister#Latin|Ister]].
  2. English: [[wikt:Danube#English|Danube]].

Modern name

The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names derived from the Latin name Latin: [[wikt:Danubius#Latin|Danubius]]:

LanguageNamePronunciation (IPA)Flow sequence
LatinDanubius, DānuviusN/A
GermanDonaupronounced as /de/1 Germany
2 Austria
BavarianDoanaN/A
SilesianDōnajN/A
Upper SorbianDunajpronounced as /hsb/N/A
CzechDunajin Czech pronounced as /ˈdunaj/N/A
SlovakianDunajin Slovak pronounced as /ˈdunaj/3 Slovakia
PolishDunajin Polish pronounced as /ˈdunaj/N/A
HungarianDunain Hungarian pronounced as /ˈdunɒ/4 Hungary
SlovenianDonavain Slovenian pronounced as /ˈdóːnaʋa/N/A
Serbo–CroatianDunav / Дунавpronounced as /dǔna(ː)ʋ/5 Croatia
6 Serbia
RomanianDunărein Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan pronounced as /ˈdunəre̯a/[13] 7 Romania
9 Moldova
BulgarianДунав (Dúnav)in Bulgarian pronounced as /ˈdunɐf/8 Bulgaria
UkrainianДунай (Dunáj)pronounced as /uk/10 Ukraine
GreekΔούναβης (Doúnavis)in Greek, Modern (1453-); pronounced as /ˈðunavis/N/A
ItalianDanubiopronounced as /it/N/A
SpanishDanubiopronounced as /es/N/A
BosnianDunavN/A
TurkishTunaN/A
RomanshDanubiN/A
AlbanianDanub,
definite form: Danubi		N/A

Etymology

Danube is an Old European river name derived from the Celtic 'danu' or 'don'[14] (both Celtic gods), which itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European . Other European river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr, Dysna and Tana/Deatnu. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, danu (दनु) means "fluid, dewdrop" and danuja (दनु-ज) means "born from danu" or "born from dew-drops". In Avestan, the same word means "river". The Finnish word for Danube is, which is most likely derived from the name of the river in German, German: Donau. Its Sámi name Sami languages: Deatnu means "Great River". It is possible that dānu in Scythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river": Dnieper and Dniestr, from Danapris and Danastius, are presumed to continue Scythian *dānu apara "far river" and *dānu nazdya- "near river", respectively.[15]

In Latin, the Danube was variously known as Latin: Danubius, Latin: Danuvius, Latin: Ister[16] or Hister. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, except Slovene (the name of the Rhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The German German: Donau (Early Modern German German: Donaw, German: Tonaw,[17] Middle High German German, Middle High (ca.1050-1500);: Tuonowe)[18] is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe "wetland".

Romanian differs from other surrounding languages in designating the river with a feminine term, Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: Dunărea (in Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan pronounced as /ˈdunəre̯a/).[9] This form was not inherited from Latin, although Romanian is a Romance language. To explain the loss of the Latin name, scholars who suppose that Romanian developed near the large river propose[13] that the Romanian name descends from a hypothetical Thracian *Donaris. The Proto-Indo-European root of this presumed name is related to the Iranic word "Iranian languages: don-"/"Iranian languages: dan-", while the supposed suffix Iranian languages: -aris is encountered in the ancient name of the Ialomița River, Naparis, and in the unidentified Miliare river mentioned by Jordanes in his Getica.[9] Gábor Vékony says that this hypothesis is not plausible, because the Greeks borrowed the Istros form from the native Thracians.[13] He proposes that the Romanian name is a loanword from a Turkic language (Cuman or Pecheneg).[13]

Association with deities

The naming of rivers using the underlying PIE divinity word has been described as:

List of deities

List of deities that may be associated with the Danube:

NameTerminologyEtymology
Anaw,
Ana,
Anu.		Celtic goddess associated
with wealth and riches.		Celtic (an- + -awes):
Gaulish anawes ("prosperity").
Old Irish anai ("wealth, riches").
Dé,
Deo,
Deiwo.		Title for a god, goddess, deity.From PIE deywós ("Sky God").Gaulish Deo ("god").Latin deus ("god, deity")
Old Irish dé ("god")
Scottish Gaelic dia ("god, deity")
Welsh duw ("god")
Tiw, Tyr.God of war.From Proto-Germanic Tīw
Dānu,
Dana		Celtic mother goddess – possibly
an early iteration of Dôn – known
only from place-names.		Deo + Anu = Dānu.
Deo + Ana = Dana.
DônCeltic mother goddess.Deo + Ana = Dôn.

Goddess of wealth, prosperity

Archaeological excavations around the upper Danube basin suggest that this was a wealthy and prosperous region – from the Bronze Age – to the Late Iron Age:

  1. Upper Danube basin:
    1. Heuneburg – possibly the polis of Pyrene mentioned by Herodotus.
    2. Hallstatt culture – Early Iron Age.
    3. La Tène culture – Late Iron Age.
  2. Lower Danube basin:
    1. Helmet of Coțofenești.

Examples of names for the Danube that may derive from the Celtic goddess Anaw (wealth, prosperity):

LanguageName
  1. 1
  1. 2
Etymology
LatinDānuviusDānuDeo + Anu
BavarianDoanaDoanaDeo + Ana
Early Modern GermanGerman: DonawDonawDeo + Anaw
Early Modern GermanGerman: TonawTonawTiw + Anaw
Middle High GermanGerman, Middle High (ca.1050-1500);: TuonoweTuonoweTiw + Anaw
Modern GermanGerman: DonauDonauDeo + Anaw

Other examples (British Isles)

Examples of river names in the British Isles that may share a common etymology:

NameRegionName historyEtymology
River DonAberdeenshireDēouana (Ptolemy). Deo + Ana.
River DeeAberdeenshireDēoua (Ptolemy).Deo.
River DonYorkshireDanuDeo + Anu.

Geography

Classified as an international waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg. The Danube then flows southeast for about, passing through four capital cities (Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade) before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.

International status

Once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries. Its drainage basin extends into nine more (ten if Kosovo is included).[19]

Flow
seq.		CountryBasin
area		Local
name		Points of interest
1Germany7.0%DonauDonaueschingen – source
2Austria10.0%DonauVienna – capital
3Slovakia5.9%DunajBratislava – capital
4Hungary11.6%DunaBudapest – capital
5Croatia4.4%Dunav
6Serbia10.2%DunavBelgrade – capital
7Romania29.0%DunăreaDanube Delta – Black Sea
8Bulgaria5.9%Dunav
9Moldova1.6%Dunărea
10Ukraine3.8%ДунайDanube Delta – Black Sea

Drainage basin

In addition to the bordering countries (see above), the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6% of the basin area), the Czech Republic (2.9%), Slovenia (2.0%), Montenegro (0.9%), Switzerland (0.2%), Italy (<0.15%), Poland (<0.1%), North Macedonia (<0.1%) and Albania (<0.1%). The total drainage basin is 801463km2 in area, and is home to 83 million people. The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border, at 4049m (13,284feet).[20] The Danube River Basin is divided into three main parts, separated by "gates" where the river is forced to cut through mountainous sections:[21]

Discharge

Mean annual discharge on the hydrological stations (period from 2000 to 2023); 1 - Reni, Isaccea; 2 - Silistra; 3 - Pristol; 4 - Batina, Bezdan; 5 - Nagymaros, Szob; 6 - Bratislava, Wolfsthal; 7 - Untergriesbach[3] [22] [23]

Year Mean annual discharge in m3/s (cu ft/s)
123 4567
20006580.6sortable=onNaNsortable=on6198.1sortable=onNaNsortable=on5585.9sortable=onNaNsortable=on2669.4sortable=onNaNsortable=on2627.2sortable=onNaNsortable=on2337.9sortable=onNaNsortable=on1667.2sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20016304.3sortable=onNaNsortable=on5919.4sortable=onNaNsortable=on5421.8sortable=onNaNsortable=on2432.5sortable=onNaNsortable=on2382.3sortable=onNaNsortable=on2231.3sortable=onNaNsortable=on1627.6sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20026837.1sortable=onNaNsortable=on6100.1sortable=onNaNsortable=on5392sortable=onNaNsortable=on2824.9sortable=onNaNsortable=on2855.6sortable=onNaNsortable=on2683sortable=onNaNsortable=on1803.9sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20035021sortable=onNaNsortable=on4571sortable=onNaNsortable=on3825sortable=onNaNsortable=on1786sortable=onNaNsortable=on1722sortable=onNaNsortable=on1647sortable=onNaNsortable=on1153sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20046524sortable=onNaNsortable=on6088sortable=onNaNsortable=on5233sortable=onNaNsortable=on2025sortable=onNaNsortable=on2013sortable=onNaNsortable=on1852sortable=onNaNsortable=on1213sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20058711sortable=onNaNsortable=on7659sortable=onNaNsortable=on6396sortable=onNaNsortable=on2420sortable=onNaNsortable=on2329sortable=onNaNsortable=on2115sortable=onNaNsortable=on1359sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20068428sortable=onNaNsortable=on7370sortable=onNaNsortable=on6616sortable=onNaNsortable=on2110sortable=onNaNsortable=on2503sortable=onNaNsortable=on2186sortable=onNaNsortable=on1396sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20075626sortable=onNaNsortable=on5195sortable=onNaNsortable=on4512sortable=onNaNsortable=on2182sortable=onNaNsortable=on2136sortable=onNaNsortable=on1916sortable=onNaNsortable=on1287sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20085909sortable=onNaNsortable=on5358sortable=onNaNsortable=on4736sortable=onNaNsortable=on2163sortable=onNaNsortable=on2079sortable=onNaNsortable=on1876sortable=onNaNsortable=on1339sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20096492sortable=onNaNsortable=on5990sortable=onNaNsortable=on5412sortable=onNaNsortable=on2607sortable=onNaNsortable=on2441sortable=onNaNsortable=on2186sortable=onNaNsortable=on1433sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20109598sortable=onNaNsortable=on8515sortable=onNaNsortable=on7424sortable=onNaNsortable=on2879sortable=onNaNsortable=on2615sortable=onNaNsortable=on2130sortable=onNaNsortable=on1420sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20115303sortable=onNaNsortable=on2000sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20125053sortable=onNaNsortable=on2240sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20137164sortable=onNaNsortable=on6558sortable=onNaNsortable=on5946sortable=onNaNsortable=on2863sortable=onNaNsortable=on2684sortable=onNaNsortable=on2417sortable=onNaNsortable=on1671sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20147446sortable=onNaNsortable=on6901sortable=onNaNsortable=on5756sortable=onNaNsortable=on2198sortable=onNaNsortable=on2036sortable=onNaNsortable=on1788sortable=onNaNsortable=on1237sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20156138sortable=onNaNsortable=on5722sortable=onNaNsortable=on4971sortable=onNaNsortable=on2030sortable=onNaNsortable=on1903sortable=onNaNsortable=on1629sortable=onNaNsortable=on1240sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20166465sortable=onNaNsortable=on5993sortable=onNaNsortable=on5339sortable=onNaNsortable=on2261sortable=onNaNsortable=on2196sortable=onNaNsortable=on1944sortable=onNaNsortable=on1412sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20175202sortable=onNaNsortable=on4813sortable=onNaNsortable=on4270sortable=onNaNsortable=on2143sortable=onNaNsortable=on2041sortable=onNaNsortable=on1844sortable=onNaNsortable=on1307sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20186487.8sortable=onNaNsortable=on5875.5sortable=onNaNsortable=on4891sortable=onNaNsortable=on1906.3sortable=onNaNsortable=on1808.1sortable=onNaNsortable=on1644.1sortable=onNaNsortable=on1227.8sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20195579sortable=onNaNsortable=on5168sortable=onNaNsortable=on4593sortable=onNaNsortable=on2253sortable=onNaNsortable=on2114sortable=onNaNsortable=on1962sortable=onNaNsortable=on1446sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20204893.5sortable=onNaNsortable=on4659sortable=onNaNsortable=on4095sortable=onNaNsortable=on2215sortable=onNaNsortable=on2026sortable=onNaNsortable=on1841sortable=onNaNsortable=on1285sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20215998sortable=onNaNsortable=on5505sortable=onNaNsortable=on4696sortable=onNaNsortable=on2178sortable=onNaNsortable=on2028sortable=onNaNsortable=on1838sortable=onNaNsortable=on1304sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20225753sortable=onNaNsortable=on2180sortable=onNaNsortable=on
20236623.8sortable=onNaNsortable=on

Multiannual average, minimum and maximum discharge (water period from 1876 to 2010)[24]

Station Discharge (m3/s)Discharge (cu ft/s)
MinMeanMaxMinMeanMax
Ceatal Izmail1,8896,48914,6731889sortable=onNaNsortable=on6489sortable=onNaNsortable=on14673sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Reni, Isaccea1,8056,56414,8201805sortable=onNaNsortable=on6564sortable=onNaNsortable=on14820sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Zimnicea, Svishtov1,4116,01814,5101411sortable=onNaNsortable=on6018sortable=onNaNsortable=on14510sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Orșova1,6725,57213,3241672sortable=onNaNsortable=on5572sortable=onNaNsortable=on13324sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Veliko Gradište1,4615,55014,1521461sortable=onNaNsortable=on5550sortable=onNaNsortable=on14152sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Pančevo1,4545,31013,0801454sortable=onNaNsortable=on5310sortable=onNaNsortable=on13080sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Bogojevo9592,8898,153959sortable=onNaNsortable=on2889sortable=onNaNsortable=on8153sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Bezdan, Batina7492,3537,043749sortable=onNaNsortable=on2353sortable=onNaNsortable=on7043sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Mohács6672,3367,227667sortable=onNaNsortable=on2336sortable=onNaNsortable=on7227sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Nagymaros, Szob6282,3337,057628sortable=onNaNsortable=on2333sortable=onNaNsortable=on7057sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Bratislava6332,0597,324633sortable=onNaNsortable=on2059sortable=onNaNsortable=on7324sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Vienna5061,9176,062506sortable=onNaNsortable=on1917sortable=onNaNsortable=on6062sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Krems an der Donau5961,8455,986596sortable=onNaNsortable=on1845sortable=onNaNsortable=on5986sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Linz4681,4514,783468sortable=onNaNsortable=on1451sortable=onNaNsortable=on4783sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Hofkirchen2116381,943211sortable=onNaNsortable=on638sortable=onNaNsortable=on1943sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Regensburg1284441,330128sortable=onNaNsortable=on444sortable=onNaNsortable=on1330sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Ingolstadt8331296583sortable=onNaNsortable=on312sortable=onNaNsortable=on965sortable=onNaNsortable=on
Ulm6381536sortable=onNaNsortable=on38sortable=onNaNsortable=on153sortable=onNaNsortable=on

Simulated water and suspended sediment results from climate-driven decadal study (with STD through specific decade):[25]

P – Simulated average precipitation in the Danube basin; T – Simulated average temperature in the Danube basin; Q – Simulated average discharge in the Danube River at delta; S – Simulated sediment load in the Danube River at delta;

Period (CE) Scenario P T Q S - !mm in !°C °F !m3/s cu ft/s !metric tons
(millions) 		short tons
(millions) 		- LIA - 1530–1540 Cool/wet 794disp=tableNaNdisp=table 9disp=tableNaNdisp=table 6207disp=tableNaNdisp=table 72.9disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1650–1660 Cool/dry 885disp=tableNaNdisp=table 8.4disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7929disp=tableNaNdisp=table 67.3disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1709–1719 Warm/wet 861disp=tableNaNdisp=table 8.3disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7616disp=tableNaNdisp=table 52.9disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1770–1780 Warm/dry 865disp=tableNaNdisp=table 8.9disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7728disp=tableNaNdisp=table 74.1disp=tableNaNdisp=table - Modern - 1940–1950 Cool/dry 778disp=tableNaNdisp=table 8.9disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7209disp=tableNaNdisp=table 55disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1960–1970 Cool/wet 850disp=tableNaNdisp=table 8.8disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7399disp=tableNaNdisp=table 73disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1975–1985 Warm/wet 818disp=tableNaNdisp=table 9disp=tableNaNdisp=table 7186disp=tableNaNdisp=table 77.8disp=tableNaNdisp=table - 1990–2000 Warm/dry 790disp=tableNaNdisp=table 9.5disp=tableNaNdisp=table 5068disp=tableNaNdisp=table 73.8disp=tableNaNdisp=table

Discharge chronology

Historical average flow to the present day; Measured and reconstructed average water flows from 1742.The reconstructed and observed streamflow (Q – m3/s) at Ceatal Izmail for the 1742 to 2022:[26] [27] [28] [29] [30]

Year !m3/s cu ft/sYear !m3/s cu ft/sYear !m3/s cu ft/sYear !m3/s cu ft/sYear !m3/s cu ft/sYear !m3/s cu ft/s
Reconstructed
17425780m3/s17516760m3/s17616470m3/s17719700m3/s17815830m3/s17915540m3/s
17435355m3/s17527090m3/s17626510m3/s17726050m3/s17826470m3/s17926930m3/s
17445370m3/s17534980m3/s17635950m3/s17734600m3/s17837930m3/s17937800m3/s
17454940m3/s17546330m3/s17646280m3/s17746150m3/s17848400m3/s17945230m3/s
17467140m3/s17556840m3/s17656130m3/s17756060m3/s17857610m3/s17956530m3/s
17475850m3/s17566370m3/s17668530m3/s17766320m3/s17866570m3/s17966460m3/s
17486840m3/s17576830m3/s17676850m3/s17775530m3/s17876980m3/s17976700m3/s
17496690m3/s17588410m3/s17688400m3/s17787470m3/s17885860m3/s17986560m3/s
17505180m3/s17595520m3/s17695720m3/s17796600m3/s17897190m3/s17999590m3/s
17606840m3/s177010700m3/s17806990m3/s17906940m3/s18006150m3/s
5905m3/s6597m3/s7154m3/s6547m3/s6978m3/s6749m3/s
18017310m3/s18118220m3/s18216390m3/s18316670m3/s18416210m3/s18517350m3/s
18026590m3/s18125230m3/s18225700m3/s18324820m3/s18425340m3/s18526550m3/s
18036870m3/s18136680m3/s18236520m3/s18335350m3/s18436710m3/s18537800m3/s
18046220m3/s18147290m3/s18246420m3/s18346470m3/s18446960m3/s18545060m3/s
18057010m3/s18156640m3/s18258040m3/s18357040m3/s18457440m3/s18557020m3/s
18066830m3/s18168090m3/s18265800m3/s18369740m3/s18466750m3/s18565390m3/s
18077000m3/s18178650m3/s18276650m3/s18376770m3/s18477070m3/s18574880m3/s
18085600m3/s18186920m3/s18288140m3/s183810440m3/s18485620m3/s18585580m3/s
18097150m3/s18196470m3/s18298280m3/s18399960m3/s18495360m3/s18595630m3/s
18108430m3/s18206560m3/s18307790m3/s18405560m3/s18507360m3/s18607220m3/s
6901m3/s7075m3/s6973m3/s7282m3/s6482m3/s6248m3/s
18615980m3/s18718860m3/s18818320m3/s18915440m3/s19015570m3/s19115120m3/s
18625040m3/s18725970m3/s18825130m3/s18925620m3/s19025650m3/s19126940m3/s
18633340m3/s18735150m3/s18837590m3/s18935710m3/s19035490m3/s19136410m3/s
18646150m3/s18744680m3/s18845250m3/s18944770m3/s19044940m3/s19146560m3/s
18655690m3/s18755360m3/s18855430m3/s18956240m3/s19056100m3/s19159540m3/s
18663780m3/s18767520m3/s18865660m3/s18966470m3/s19066190m3/s19167550m3/s
18676350m3/s18776660m3/s18875340m3/s18977700m3/s19076770m3/s19176410m3/s
18685660m3/s18787040m3/s18886800m3/s18984550m3/s19084400m3/s19184300m3/s
18695370m3/s18798300m3/s18896530m3/s18994500m3/s19095590m3/s19197410m3/s
18707470m3/s18805660m3/s18904650m3/s19006900m3/s19107450m3/s19206720m3/s
5483m3/s6520m3/s6070m3/s5790m3/s5815m3/s6770m3/s
Observed
19213906m3/s19316706m3/s19419916m3/s19516368m3/s19615860m3/s19715272m3/s
19226530m3/s19326181m3/s19427266m3/s19525850m3/s19626628m3/s19726160m3/s
19236430m3/s19336344m3/s19434308m3/s19536117m3/s19636047m3/s19735766m3/s
19246700m3/s19345644m3/s19447190m3/s19546168m3/s19645259m3/s19747258m3/s
19255255m3/s19355718m3/s19455870m3/s19558834m3/s19658400m3/s19757190m3/s
19268144m3/s19366392m3/s19464684m3/s19567100m3/s19667954m3/s19766567m3/s
19275990m3/s19378325m3/s19475418m3/s19576254m3/s19677500m3/s19777073m3/s
19285005m3/s19386867m3/s19486357m3/s19586340m3/s19685660m3/s19787120m3/s
19295330m3/s19396310m3/s19494301m3/s19595375m3/s19697710m3/s19797747m3/s
19305197m3/s19409533m3/s19505130m3/s19606514m3/s19709602m3/s19808767m3/s
5888m3/s6802m3/s6044m3/s6492m3/s7062m3/s6892m3/s
19818172m3/s19916274m3/s20016304.3m3/s20115303m3/s20216018m3/s
19826700m3/s19925710.8m3/s20026837.1m3/s20125053m3/s20225753m3/s
19835543m3/s19934873m3/s20035021m3/s20137164m3/s20236623.8m3/s
19846325m3/s19946031.8m3/s20046524m3/s20147446m3/s2024when adding a value-->
19856449m3/s19956223.7m3/s20058711m3/s20156138m3/s2025when adding a value-->
19866257m3/s19967035.8m3/s20068428m3/s20166465m3/s2026when adding a value-->
19876619m3/s19976684.2m3/s20075626m3/s20175202m3/s2027when adding a value-->
19886383m3/s19986804.6m3/s20085909m3/s20186487.8m3/s2028when adding a value-->
19895448m3/s19997951.5m3/s20096492m3/s20195579m3/s2029when adding a value-->
19904194m3/s20006580.6m3/s20109598m3/s20204893.5m3/s2030when adding a value-->
6209m3/s6417m3/s6945m3/s5973m3/s6131.6m3/s
Multiannual average discharge 1742 to 2022: ~ 6500m3/s

Tributaries

See main article: List of tributaries of the Danube.

The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (as they enter):

  1. Iller (entering at Ulm)
  2. Lech
  3. Altmühl (entering at Kelheim)
  4. Naab (entering at Regensburg)
  5. Regen (entering at Regensburg)
  6. Isar
  7. Inn (entering at Passau)
  8. Ilz (entering at Passau)
  9. Enns
  10. Morava (entering near Devín Castle)
  11. Rába (entering at Győr)
  12. Váh (entering at Komárno)
  13. Hron (entering at Štúrovo)
  14. Ipeľ
  15. Sió
  16. Drava (entering near Osijek)
  17. Vuka (entering at Vukovar)
18. Tisza (entering near Titel)
19. Sava (entering at Belgrade)
20. Timiș (river) (entering at Pančevo)
21. Great Morava (entering near Smederevo)
22. Mlava (entering near Kostolac)
23. Karaš (entering near Banatska Palanka)
24. Jiu (entering at Bechet)
25. Iskar (entering near Gigen)
26. Olt (entering at Turnu Măgurele)
27. Osam (entering near Nikopol, Bulgaria)
28. Yantra (entering near Svishtov)
29. Argeș (entering at Oltenița)
30. Ialomița
31. Siret (entering near Galați)
32. Prut (entering near Galați)

Cities and towns

See main article: List of cities and towns on the Danube river.

The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from the source to the mouth they are:

Islands

Sectioning

Modern navigation

The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania (the maritime river sector), and further on by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable.

Since the completion of the German Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3500km (2,200miles). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005.

At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60km (40miles) downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15400m3/s.

There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64km (40miles) Danube-Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400km (200miles); the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal is about 171km (106miles), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.[31] A Danube-Aegean canal has been proposed.[32]

Danube River cruise for sightseeing is popular, especially between Passau, Germany, to Budapest, Hungary.[33]

Piracy

In 2010–12, shipping companies, especially from Ukraine, claimed that their vessels suffered from "regular pirate attacks" on the Serbian and the Romanian stretches of the Danube.[34] [35] [36] However, the transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery".[37]

On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates", and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small-time contraband theft along the river.[38]

Danube Delta

See main article: Danube Delta. The Danube Delta (Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: Delta Dunării in Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan pronounced as /ˈdelta ˈdunərij/; Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю|translit=Del'ta Dunayu) is the largest river delta in the European Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odesa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4152km2, of which 3446km2 are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim-Sinoe (1015km2 of which 865km2 water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5165km2.

The Danube Delta is also the best-preserved river delta in Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and a Ramsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangered pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as the Bystroye Canal.[39]

2022 heat wave

In 2022, there was a major heat wave in Europe. As a result, there was less water flowing in the rivers. As the water level decreased, a number of ship wrecks from World War II emerged in the Danube River. Many of the ships were from Nazi Germany's Black Sea Fleet and had been scuttled to stop them from falling into enemy hands.[40]

International cooperation

Ecology and environment

See main article: International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River.

The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization that consists of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro, and Ukraine) and the European Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement, and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive and the Danube Strategy.

Navigation

See main article: Danube Commission. The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia; it meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission's working plans.

The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states.

Geology

Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the Alps mountains which flows north towards the North Sea, an invisible line beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed.

Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is thus an underfit stream.Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alb, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12sp=usNaNsp=us south at the Aachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8500sp=usNaNsp=us, north of Lake Constance—thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sinkholes in the Donauversickerung.

Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing.

The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia at Batina, Dalj, Vukovar and Ilok.[41]

History

The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BCE Vinča culture, (Vinča, Serbia) are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BCE Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics.

Darius the Great, king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BCE to invade European Scythia and to subdue the Scythians.

Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian king Syrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BCE.

Under the Romans, the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time, it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From 37 CE to the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I (364–375) the Danubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube into Dacia was achieved by the Imperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town of Drobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia under Decebalus enabled the Province of Dacia to be created, but in 271 it was abandoned by emperor Aurelian.

Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century.

Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube

Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282).

At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.[42]

Rivalry along the Danube

Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire competed first with the Kingdom of Serbia, Second Bulgarian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary, Principality of Wallachia, Principality of Moldavia and later with the Habsburg monarchy, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire for controlling the Danube (Tuna in Turkish), which became the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars (1366–1526) and Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791) were fought along the river.

The most important wars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Siege of Belgrade (1456), the Battle of Mohács (1526), the first Turkish Siege of Vienna (1529), the Siege of Esztergom (1543), the Long War (1591–1606), the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878).

Second World War

During the 2011 renovation of the Margaret Bridge, Budapest, human remains were discovered. The mostly Jewish remains were victims of the far-right Arrow Cross Party, who briefly governed Hungary from 1944.[43]

Economics

Drinking water

Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people.[44] [45] In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such as Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube.

In Austria and Hungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.[46]

Navigation and transport

In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, as The Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot."[47]

Today, as "Corridor VII" of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects the Port of Rotterdam and the industrial centers of Western Europe with the Black Sea and, also, through the Danube – Black Sea Canal, with the Port of Constanța.

The waterway is designed for large-scale inland vessels but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns.

Downstream from the Freudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860km (530miles).

The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal at Kelheim, with the Donaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube–Black Sea Canal at Cernavodă.

Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Danube–Tisa–Danube Canals, links sections downstream.

In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat-bottomed boat called a Zille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area.

Fishing

The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry. However, some of the river's resources have been managed in an environmentally unsustainable manner in the past, leading to damage by pollution, alterations to the channel, and major infrastructure development, including large hydropower dams.[48]

The sturgeon stocks associated with the Danube River basin have, over the centuries, formed the basis of a large and significant commercial fishery, renowned throughout the world. The construction of the dams, besides overfishing and river pollution, has a significant role in sturgeon population decline because it creates a barrier for fish migratory species that usually spawn in the upper parts of the river.[49] The spawning areas of migratory fishes species has been dramatically reduced by the construction of hydropower and navigation systems at Iron Gates I (1974) and Iron Gates II (1984).[50] The initial design of these dams has not included any fish passage facility.[51] The possibility of building a human-made fish pass enabling migration for fish species including the sturgeon, is currently under review by projects such as We Pass.[52]

The Upper Danube ecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube–Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many.[53] Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga, Russian sturgeon, bastard sturgeon, sterlet, starry sturgeon and European sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely–or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon–disappeared from the river.[53] The huchen, one of the largest species of salmon, is endemic to the Danube basin, but has been introduced elsewhere by humans.

Tourism

Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau Valley, the Nationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, the Danube Delta in Romania, and the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria.

Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go from Passau in Germany to the Danube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic-free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats.

The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also important for the regional tourism industry due to its fascinating landmarks and sights. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking, and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.[54]

The Danube Banks in Budapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city.

The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination.

Danube Bike Trail

The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.[55]

The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections:

  1. Donaueschingen–Passau (559abbr=onNaNabbr=on)
  2. Passau–Vienna (340abbr=onNaNabbr=on)
  3. Vienna–Budapest (306abbr=onNaNabbr=on)
  4. Budapest–Black Sea (1670abbr=onNaNabbr=on)

Sultans Trail

The Sultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river between Vienna and Smederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating in Istanbul. Sections along the river are as follows.

  1. Vienna–Budapest (323abbr=onNaNabbr=on)
  2. Budapest–Smederevo (595abbr=onNaNabbr=on)

Donausteig

In 2010, the Donausteig, a hiking trail from Passau to Grein, was opened. It is 450sp=usNaNsp=us long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes through five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. A landscape and viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of the Donausteig.[56]

The Route of Emperors and Kings

The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading from Regensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna.[57] The international consortium ARGE Die Donau-Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.

In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town, stone bridge and cathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues to Engelhartszell, with the only Trappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight-stops along the Danube, include the "Schlögener Schlinge", the city of Linz, which was European Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, the Melk Abbey, the university city of Krems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter of which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Since ancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue traveled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While traveling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today.

The route got its name from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and the crusaders as well as from Richard I of England who had been jailed in the Dürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of the Habsburg family. Once crowned in Frankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences, and state-run convents were built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock".

Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig" and visit the UNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg, Wachau and Vienna.[58]

Important national parks

In popular culture

See also

Further reading

References

Sources

External links

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: Danube River. Encyclopædia Britannica . Online . 30 April 2022.
  2. Web site: Hydromorphological balance of the Danube River Channel on the Sector between Bazias (km 1072.2) and Danube Delta Inlet (km 80.5) . Bondar . Constantin . . 30 April 2022.
  3. Web site: ICPDR.
  4. Web site: Long-term Morphological Development of the Danube in Relation to the Sediment Balance.
  5. Web site: Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia.
  6. Web site: ICPDR-International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River.
  7. Web site: Points of view expressed by the Romanian authorities and scientific research on the Ukraine's document "Annotated Report on Scientific Research – Complex Environmental Monitoring for the Danube – Black Sea Deep Water Navigation Canal operation in 2017–2018. The Sea Approach Canal Zone" . unece.org . 30 April 2022.
  8. Web site: Herodotus, The Histories, book 4, chapter 48. www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  9. Straturi etimologice reflectate în hidronimia românească . Oliviu . Felecan . Nicolae . Felecan . 254 . Quaderns de Filologia: Estudis Lingüístics . 20 . 2015 . 1 . Universitat de València . 10.7203/qfilologia.20.7521 . free .
  10. Matoas, the Thraco-Phrygian name for the Danube, and the IE root *madų . Robert . Dyer . Glotta . 52 . 1974 . 1/2 . 91–95 . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG) . 40266286.
  11. Book: Šašel Kos, Marjeta . sl, en . Ukročena lepotica: Sava in njene zgodbe . 42–50 . Reka kot božanstvo — Sava v antiki . River as a Deity – The Sava in Antiquity . Jožef . Barachini . The Tamed Beauty: The Sava and Its Stories . 978-961-92735-0-0 . 2009 . Sevnica . Javni zavod za kulturo, šport, turizem in mladinske dejavnosti . https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041135/http://iza.zrc-sazu.si/pdf/Sasel_Kos_Ukrocena_lepotica.pdf . 4 March 2016 .
  12. Book: Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre . Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat . Nouveaus Mélanges Asiatiques . 2 . Paris . Schubart and Heidelhoff . 1829 . 96–97.
  13. Book: Vékony, Gábor . 2000 . Dacians, Romans, Romanians . Matthias Corvinus Publishing . 978-1-882785-13-1 . 210 . registration .
  14. Triad 35. Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein, pp. 280–285.
  15. Book: J. P. Mallory . Mallory . J.P . Victor H. Mair . Victor H. . Mair . The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West . registration . London . Thames and Hudson . 2000 . 106 . 978-0-500-05101-6 . . Book: http://i.ironau.ru/pdf/osjazfolk1949.pdf . V. I. Adaev . ru:Осетинский язык и фольклор . Ossetian language and folklore . Moscow . Publishing house of Soviet Academy of Sciences . 1949 . 236 . ru .
  16. Book: Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One. Paris. Mouton. 1976. 144.
  17. German: Tonaw in Book: Sebastian Franck . Weltbuch . 1542 . 81 . Sebastian Franck. German: Donaw e.g. in Book: Leonhard Thurneisser zum Thurn . Pison . 1572 . 186. Spelling German: Donau from the 17th century.
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