Isotopes of thallium explained

Thallium (81Tl) has 41 isotopes with atomic masses that range from 176 to 216. 203Tl and 205Tl are the only stable isotopes and 204Tl is the most stable radioisotope with a half-life of 3.78 years. 207Tl, with a half-life of 4.77 minutes, has the longest half-life of naturally occurring Tl radioisotopes. All isotopes of thallium are either radioactive or observationally stable, meaning that they are predicted to be radioactive but no actual decay has been observed.

Thallium-202 (half-life 12.23 days) can be made in a cyclotron[1] while thallium-204 (half-life 3.78 years) is made by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor.[2]

In the fully ionized state, the isotope 205Tl becomes beta-radioactive, decaying to 205Pb,[3] but 203Tl remains stable.

205Tl is the decay product of bismuth-209, an isotope that was once thought to be stable but is now known to undergo alpha decay with an extremely long half-life of 2.01×1019 y.[4] 205Tl is at the end of the neptunium series decay chain.

List of isotopes

|-id=Thallium-176| rowspan=2|176Tl[5] | rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 95| rowspan=2|176.00059(21)#| rowspan=2|| p (~63%)| 175Hg| rowspan=2|(3-, 4-, 5-)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (~37%)| 172Au|-id=Thallium-176m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 176mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | ~671 keV| rowspan=2|| p (~50%)| 175Hg| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (~50%)| 172mAu|-id=Thallium-177| rowspan=2|177Tl[6] | rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 96| rowspan=2|176.996427(27)| rowspan=2|18(5) ms| α (73%)| 173Au| rowspan=2|(1/2+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| p (27%)| 176Hg|-id=Thallium-177m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 177mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 807(18) keV| rowspan=2|230(40) μs| p (51%)| 176Hg| rowspan=2|(11/2−)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (49%)| 173Au|-id=Thallium-178| rowspan=3|178Tl[7] | rowspan=3|| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 97| rowspan=3|177.99490(12)#| rowspan=3|255(9) ms| α (62%)| 174Au| rowspan=3| (4-,5-)| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3||-| β+ (38%)| 178Hg|-| β+, SF (0.15%)| (various)|-id=Thallium-179| rowspan=2|179Tl[8] | rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 98| rowspan=2|178.99109(5)| rowspan=2|437(9) ms| α (60%)| 175Au| rowspan=2|(1/2+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β+ (40%)| 179Hg|-id=Thallium-179m1| rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 179m1Tl| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 825(10)# keV| rowspan=3|1.41(2) ms| α| 175Au| rowspan=3|(11/2−)| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3||-| IT (rare)| 179Tl|-| β+ (rare)| 179Hg|-id=Thallium-179m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 179m2Tl| | colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 904.5(9) keV| 119(14) ns| IT| 179Tl| (9/2−)| | |-id=Thallium-180| rowspan=3|180Tl[9] | rowspan=3|| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=3 style="text-align:right" | 99| rowspan=3|179.98991(13)#| rowspan=3|1.09(1) s| β+ (93%)| 180Hg| rowspan=3| 4-#| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3||-| α (7%)| 176Au|-| β+, SF (0.0032%)| 100Ru, 80Kr[10] |-id=Thallium-181| rowspan=2|181Tl[11] | rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 100| rowspan=2|180.986257(10)| rowspan=2|2.9(1) s| β+ (91.4%)| 181Hg| rowspan=2|1/2+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (8.6%)| 177Au|-id=Thallium-181m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 181mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 834.9(4) keV| rowspan=2|1.40(3) ms| IT (99.60%)| 181Tl| rowspan=2|(9/2−)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (0.40%)| 177Au|-id=Thallium-182| rowspan=2|182Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 101| rowspan=2|181.98567(8)| rowspan=2|2.0(3) s| β+ (96%)| 182Hg| rowspan=2|2−#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (4%)| 178Au|-id=Thallium-182m1| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 182m1Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 100(100)# keV| rowspan=2|2.9(5) s| α| 178Au| rowspan=2|(7+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β+ (rare)| 182Hg|-id=Thallium-182m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 182m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 600(140)# keV|||| 10−|||-id=Thallium-183| rowspan=2|183Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 102| rowspan=2|182.982193(10)| rowspan=2|6.9(7) s| β+ (98%)| 183Hg| rowspan=2|1/2+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (2%)| 179Au|-id=Thallium-183m1| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 183m1Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 630(17) keV| rowspan=2|53.3(3) ms| IT (99.99%)| 183Tl| rowspan=2|9/2−#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (.01%)| 179Au|-id=Thallium-183m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 183m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 976.8(3) keV| 1.48(10) μs||| (13/2+)|||-id=Thallium-184| 184Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 103| 183.98187(5)| 9.7(6) s| β+| 184Hg| 2−#|||-id=Thallium-184m1| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 184m1Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 100(100)# keV| rowspan=2|10# s| β+ (97.9%)| 184Hg| rowspan=2|7+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (2.1%)| 180Au|-id=Thallium-184m2| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 184m2Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 500(140)# keV| rowspan=2| 47.1 ms| IT (99.911%)|| rowspan=2|(10−)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (.089%)| 180Au|-id=Thallium-185| rowspan=2|185Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 104| rowspan=2|184.97879(6)| rowspan=2|19.5(5) s| α| 181Au| rowspan=2|1/2+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β+| 185Hg|-id=Thallium-185m| rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 185mTl| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 452.8(20) keV| rowspan=3|1.93(8) s| IT (99.99%)| 185Tl| rowspan=3|9/2−#| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3||-| α (.01%)| 181Au|-| β+| 185Hg|-id=Thallium-186| rowspan=2|186Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 105| rowspan=2|185.97833(20)| rowspan=2|40# s| β+| 186Hg| rowspan=2|(2−)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (.006%)| 182Au|-id=Thallium-186m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 186m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 320(180) keV| 27.5(10) s| β+| 186Hg| (7+)|||-id=Thallium-186m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 186m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 690(180) keV| 2.9(2) s||| (10−)|||-id=Thallium-187| rowspan=2|187Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 106| rowspan=2|186.975906(9)| rowspan=2|~51 s| β+| 187Hg| rowspan=2|(1/2+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (rare)| 183Au|-id=Thallium-187m| rowspan=3 style="text-indent:1em" | 187mTl| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 335(3) keV| rowspan=3|15.60(12) s| α| 183Au| rowspan=3|(9/2−)| rowspan=3|| rowspan=3||-| IT| 187Tl|-| β+| 187Hg|-id=Thallium-188| 188Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 107| 187.97601(4)| 71(2) s| β+| 188Hg| (2−)|||-id=Thallium-188m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 188m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 40(30) keV| 71(1) s| β+| 188Hg| (7+)|||-id=Thallium-188m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 188m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 310(30) keV| 41(4) ms||| (9−)|||-id=Thallium-189| 189Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 108| 188.973588(12)| 2.3(2) min| β+| 189Hg| (1/2+)|||-id=Thallium-189m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 189mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 257.6(13) keV| rowspan=2|1.4(1) min| β+ (96%)| 189Hg| rowspan=2|(9/2−)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| IT (4%)| 189Tl|-id=Thallium-190| 190Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 109| 189.97388(5)| 2.6(3) min| β+| 190Hg| 2(−)|||-id=Thallium-190m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 190m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 130(90)# keV| 3.7(3) min| β+| 190Hg| 7(+#)|||-id=Thallium-190m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 190m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 290(70)# keV| 750(40) μs||| (8−)|||-id=Thallium-190m3| style="text-indent:1em" | 190m3Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 410(70)# keV| >1 μs||| 9−|||-id=Thallium-191| 191Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 110| 190.971786(8)| 20# min| β+| 191Hg| (1/2+)|||-id=Thallium-191m| style="text-indent:1em" | 191mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 297(7) keV| 5.22(16) min| β+| 191Hg| 9/2(−)|||-id=Thallium-192| 192Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 111| 191.97223(3)| 9.6(4) min| β+| 192Hg| (2−)|||-id=Thallium-192m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 192m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 160(50) keV| 10.8(2) min| β+| 192Hg| (7+)|||-id=Thallium-192m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 192m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 407(54) keV| 296(5) ns||| (8−)|||-id=Thallium-193| 193Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 112| 192.97067(12)| 21.6(8) min| β+| 193Hg| 1/2(+#)|||-id=Thallium-193m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 193mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 369(4) keV| rowspan=2|2.11(15) min| IT (75%)| 193Tl| rowspan=2|9/2−| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β+ (25%)| 193Hg|-id=Thallium-194| rowspan=2|194Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 113| rowspan=2|193.97120(15)| rowspan=2|33.0(5) min| β+| 194Hg| rowspan=2|2−| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| α (10−7%)| 190Au|-id=Thallium-194m| style="text-indent:1em" | 194mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 300(200)# keV| 32.8(2) min| β+| 194Hg| (7+)|||-id=Thallium-195| 195Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 114| 194.969774(15)| 1.16(5) h| β+| 195Hg| 1/2+|||-id=Thallium-195m| style="text-indent:1em" | 195mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 482.63(17) keV| 3.6(4) s| IT| 195Tl| 9/2−|||-id=Thallium-196| 196Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 115| 195.970481(13)| 1.84(3) h| β+| 196Hg| 2−|||-id=Thallium-196m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 196mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 394.2(5) keV| rowspan=2|1.41(2) h| β+ (95.5%)| 196Hg| rowspan=2|(7+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| IT (4.5%)| 196Tl|-id=Thallium-197| 197Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 116| 196.969575(18)| 2.84(4) h| β+| 197Hg| 1/2+|||-id=Thallium-197m| style="text-indent:1em" | 197mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 608.22(8) keV| 540(10) ms| IT| 197Tl| 9/2−|||-id=Thallium-198| 198Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 117| 197.97048(9)| 5.3(5) h| β+| 198Hg| 2−|||-id=Thallium-198m1| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 198m1Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 543.5(4) keV| rowspan=2|1.87(3) h| β+ (54%)| 198Hg| rowspan=2|7+| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| IT (46%)| 198Tl|-id=Thallium-198m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 198m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 687.2(5) keV| 150(40) ns||| (5+)|||-id=Thallium-198m3| style="text-indent:1em" | 198m3Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 742.3(4) keV| 32.1(10) ms||| (10−)#|||-id=Thallium-199| 199Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 118| 198.96988(3)| 7.42(8) h| β+| 199Hg| 1/2+|||-id=Thallium-199m| style="text-indent:1em" | 199mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 749.7(3) keV| 28.4(2) ms| IT| 199Tl| 9/2−|||-id=Thallium-200| 200Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 119| 199.970963(6)| 26.1(1) h| β+| 200Hg| 2−|||-id=Thallium-200m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 200m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 753.6(2) keV| 34.3(10) ms| IT| 200Tl| 7+|||-id=Thallium-200m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 200m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 762.0(2) keV| 0.33(5) μs||| 5+|||-| 201Tl[12] || style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 120| 200.970819(16)| 72.912(17) h| EC| 201Hg| 1/2+|||-id=Thallium-201m| style="text-indent:1em" | 201mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 919.50(9) keV| 2.035(7) ms| IT| 201Tl| (9/2−)|||-id=Thallium-202| 202Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 121| 201.972106(16)| 12.23(2) d| β+| 202Hg| 2−|||-id=Thallium-202m| style="text-indent:1em" | 202mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 950.19(10) keV| 572(7) μs||| 7+|||-id=Thallium-203| 203Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 122| 202.9723442(14)| colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable[13] | 1/2+| 0.2952(1)| 0.29494–0.29528|-id=Thallium-203m| style="text-indent:1em" | 203mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3400(300) keV| 7.7(5) μs||| (25/2+)|||-id=Thallium-204| rowspan=2|204Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 123| rowspan=2|203.9738635(13)| rowspan=2|3.78(2) y| β− (97.1%)| 204Pb| rowspan=2|2−| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| EC (2.9%)| 204Hg|-id=Thallium-204m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 204m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1104.0(4) keV| 63(2) μs||| (7)+|||-id=Thallium-204m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 204m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2500(500) keV| 2.6(2) μs||| (12−)|||-id=Thallium-204m3| style="text-indent:1em" | 204m3Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3500(500) keV| 1.6(2) μs||| (20+)|||-id=Thallium-205| 205Tl[14] || style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 124| 204.9744275(14)| colspan=3 align=center|Observationally Stable[15] | 1/2+| 0.7048(1)| 0.70472–0.70506|-id=Thallium-205m1| style="text-indent:1em" | 205m1Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 3290.63(17) keV| 2.6(2) μs||| 25/2+|||-id=Thallium-205m2| style="text-indent:1em" | 205m2Tl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 4835.6(15) keV| 235(10) ns||| (35/2–)|||-id=Thallium-206| 206Tl| Radium E| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 125| 205.9761103(15)| 4.200(17) min| β−| 206Pb| 0−| Trace[16] ||-id=Thallium-206m| style="text-indent:1em" | 206mTl|| colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 2643.11(19) keV| 3.74(3) min| IT| 206Tl| (12–)|||-id=Thallium-207| 207Tl| Actinium C| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 126| 206.977419(6)| 4.77(2) min| β−| 207Pb| 1/2+| Trace[17] ||-id=Thallium-207m| rowspan=2 style="text-indent:1em" | 207mTl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" | 1348.1(3) keV| rowspan=2|1.33(11) s| IT (99.9%)| 207Tl| rowspan=2|11/2–| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β− (.1%)| 207Pb|-id=Thallium-208| 208Tl| Thorium C"| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 127| 207.9820187(21)| 3.053(4) min| β−| 208Pb| 5+| Trace[18] ||-id=Thallium-209| 209Tl|| style="text-align:right" | 81| style="text-align:right" | 128| 208.985359(8)| 2.161(7) min| β−| 209Pb| 1/2+| Trace[19] ||-id=Thallium-210| rowspan=2|210Tl| rowspan=2|Radium C″| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 129| rowspan=2|209.990074(12)| rowspan=2|1.30(3) min| β− (99.991%)| 210Pb| rowspan=2|(5+)#| rowspan=2| Trace| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (.009%)| 209Pb|-id=Thallium-211| rowspan=2|211Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 130| rowspan=2|210.993480(50)| rowspan=2|80(16) s| β− (97.8%)| 211Pb| rowspan=2|1/2+| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (2.2%)| 210Pb|-id=Thallium-212| rowspan=2|212Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 131| rowspan=2|211.998340(220)#| rowspan=2|31(8) s| β− (98.2%)| 212Pb| rowspan=2|(5+)| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (1.8%)| 211Pb|-id=Thallium-213| rowspan=2|213Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 132| rowspan=2|213.001915(29)| rowspan=2|24(4) s| β− (92.4%)| 213Pb| rowspan=2|1/2+| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (7.6%)| 212Pb|-id=Thallium-214| rowspan=2|214Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 133| rowspan=2|214.006940(210)#| rowspan=2|11(2) s| β− (66%)| 214Pb| rowspan=2|5+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (34%)| 213Pb|-id=Thallium-215| rowspan=2|215Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 134| rowspan=2|215.010640(320)#| rowspan=2|10(4) s| β− (95.4%)| 215Pb| rowspan=2|1/2+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (4.6%)| 214Pb|-id=Thallium-216| rowspan=2|216Tl| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 81| rowspan=2 style="text-align:right" | 135| rowspan=2|216.015800(320)#| rowspan=2|6(3) s| β−| 216Pb| rowspan=2|5+#| rowspan=2|| rowspan=2||-| β−, n (<11.5%)| 215Pb

Thallium-201

Thallium-201 (201Tl) is a synthetic radioisotope of thallium. It has a half-life of 73 hours and decays by electron capture, emitting X-rays (~70–80 keV), and photons of 135 and 167 keV in 10% total abundance. Thallium-201 is synthesized by the neutron activation of stable thallium in a nuclear reactor,[20] or by the 203Tl(p, 3n)201Pb nuclear reaction in cyclotrons, as 201Pb naturally decays to 201Tl afterwards.[21] It is a radiopharmaceutical, as it has good imaging characteristics without excessive patient radiation dose. It is the most popular isotope used for thallium nuclear cardiac stress tests.[22]

References

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Thallium Research . https://web.archive.org/web/20061209165017/http://www.eh.doe.gov/ohre/roadmap/histories/0472/0472d.html . 2006-12-09 . Department of Energy. doe.gov. 23 March 2018.
  2. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/te_1340_web.pdf Manual for reactor produced radioisotopes
  3. Web site: Bound-state beta decay of highly ionized atoms. June 9, 2013 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205727/http://www.ca.infn.it/~oldeman/resneu/p1522_1.pdf . October 29, 2013 .
  4. Marcillac. P.. Coron . N. . Dambier . G. . Leblanc . J. . Moalic . J.-P. . 2003 . 3 . Experimental detection of α-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuth. Nature. 422. 876–878. 12712201. 10.1038/nature01541. 6934. 2003Natur.422..876D. 4415582.
  5. Web site: Al-Aqeel . Muneerah Abdullah M . Decay Spectroscopy of the Thallium Isotopes 176,177Tl . University of Liverpool . 21 June 2023. .
  6. Poli . G. L. . Davids . C. N. . Woods . P. J. . Seweryniak . D. . Batchelder . J. C. . Brown . L. T. . Bingham . C. R. . Carpenter . M. P. . Conticchio . L. F. . Davinson . T. . DeBoer . J. . Hamada . S. . Henderson . D. J. . Irvine . R. J. . Janssens . R. V. F. . Maier . H. J. . Müller . L. . Soramel . F. . Toth . K. S. . Walters . W. B. . Wauters . J. . Proton and $\ensuremath$ radioactivity below the $Z=82$ shell closure . Physical Review C . 1 June 1999 . 59 . 6 . R2979–R2983 . 10.1103/PhysRevC.59.R2979 . 21 June 2023.
  7. Kondev . F. G. . Wang . M. . Huang . W. J. . Naimi . S. . Audi . G. . The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties * . Chinese Physics C, High Energy Physics and Nuclear Physics . 1 March 2021 . 45 . 3 . 030001 . 10.1088/1674-1137/abddae . 2021ChPhC..45c0001K . 1774641 . English . 1674-1137. free .
  8. Kondev . F. G. . Wang . M. . Huang . W. J. . Naimi . S. . Audi . G. . The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties * . Chinese Physics C, High Energy Physics and Nuclear Physics . 1 March 2021 . 45 . 3 . 030001 . 10.1088/1674-1137/abddae . 2021ChPhC..45c0001K . 1774641 . English . 1674-1137. free .
  9. Kondev . F. G. . Wang . M. . Huang . W. J. . Naimi . S. . Audi . G. . The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties * . Chinese Physics C, High Energy Physics and Nuclear Physics . 1 March 2021 . 45 . 3 . 030001 . 10.1088/1674-1137/abddae . 2021ChPhC..45c0001K . 1774641 . English . 1674-1137. free .
  10. Web site: Mercury serves up a nuclear surprise: a new type of fission. Scientific American . 2010 . Reich . E. S. . 12 May 2011.
  11. Kondev . F. G. . Wang . M. . Huang . W. J. . Naimi . S. . Audi . G. . The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties * . Chinese Physics C, High Energy Physics and Nuclear Physics . 1 March 2021 . 45 . 3 . 030001 . 10.1088/1674-1137/abddae . 2021ChPhC..45c0001K . 1774641 . English . 1674-1137. free .
  12. Main isotope used in scintigraphy
  13. Believed to undergo α decay to 199Au
  14. Final decay product of 4n+1 decay chain (the Neptunium series)
  15. Believed to undergo α decay to 201Au
  16. Intermediate decay product of 238U
  17. Intermediate decay product of 235U
  18. Intermediate decay product of 232Th
  19. Intermediate decay product of 237Np
  20. Web site: Manual for reactor produced radioisotopes. International Atomic Energy Agency. 2003. 2010-05-13. 2011-05-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20110521072530/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/te_1340_web.pdf. live.
  21. Book: Cyclotron Produced Radionuclides: Principles and Practice . International Atomic Energy Agency. 2008 . 2022-07-01 . 9789201002082.
  22. Book: https://books.google.com/books?id=CqQgnHrDxrUC&pg=PA173. Detection, Evaluation, and Risk Stratification of Coronary Artery Disease by Thallium-201 Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy 155. Jamshid. Maddahi. Daniel. Berman. Cardiac SPECT imaging. 2nd. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2001. 978-0-7817-2007-6. 155–178. 2016-09-26. 2017-02-22. https://web.archive.org/web/20170222122246/https://books.google.com/books?id=CqQgnHrDxrUC&pg=PA173. live.

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