Ismail al-Faruqi explained

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi
Native Name:إسماعيل راجي الفاروقي
Native Name Lang:ar
Birth Date:1 January 1921
Birth Place:Jaffa, Palestine
Death Place:Wyncote, Pennsylvania, United States
Death Cause:Murder by stabbing
Resting Place:Forest Hills Cemetery, Pennsylvania
Nationality:
United States
Children:4
Discipline:Philosophy
Sub Discipline:Comparative religion, Islamic studies
Signature:Ismail al Faruqi Signature.svg
Signature Alt:Signature of Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (Arabic: إسماعيل راجي الفاروقي|Ismāʿīl Rājī al-Fārūqī; pronounced as /ar/; January 1, 1921 – May 27, 1986) was a Palestinian-American philosopher who worked extensively in Islamic studies and interfaith dialogue. He spent several years at Al-Azhar University in Cairo and taught at universities in North America, including McGill University in Montreal, Canada. Al-Faruqi was a professor of religion at Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program. He also founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). Al-Faruqi authored over 100 articles and 25 books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1967) and (1982).

Early life and education

Al-Faruqi was born in Jaffa, in British-mandate Palestine.[1] [2] His father, 'Abd al-Huda al-Faruqi, was an Islamic judge (qadi). Al-Faruqi received his early religious education at home and in the local mosque. His father's influence significantly shaped al-Faruqi's early religious and moral education.[3] In 1936, he began attending the French Dominican Collège des Frères de Jaffa.[4]

In 1942, he was appointed as a registrar of cooperative societies under the British Mandate government in Jerusalem. In 1945, he became the district governor of Galilee. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, al-Faruqi emigrated to Beirut, Lebanon, where he studied at the American University of Beirut. At the American University of Beirut, al-Faruqi was influenced by Arab nationalist movements and prominent Christian Arab nationalists such as Constantin Zureiq, Nabih Amin Faris and Nicola Ziadeh. These influences contributed to his adoption of Arabism. The academic environment at AUB included compulsory attendance of Christian missionary lectures and courses promoting Western modernity, which influenced his ideological development. He later enrolled at Indiana University, obtaining his M.A. in philosophy with a thesis titled The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics) in 1949.[5]

In his Master’s thesis, al-Faruqi examined the ethics of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche. He followed this with a second M.A. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1951 and earned his Ph.D. with a thesis titled On Justifying the Good from Indiana University in 1952.[6] His early philosophical work laid the groundwork for his later critiques of Western ethical systems and his development of Islamic ethical thought.[7] In his doctoral thesis, al-Faruqi argued that values are absolute, self-existent essences known a priori through emotional intuition. He based his theories on Max Scheler's use of phenomenology and Nicolai Hartmann's studies in ethics.[8] [9]

His studies led him to conclude that the absence of a transcendent foundation leads to moral relativism, prompting him to reassess his Islamic heritage. Within six years of arriving in the United States, he recognized the need for a more thorough study of Islam, which led him to study at Egypt’s Al-Azhar University from 1954 to 1958.[10] By the time he left the United States, he had developed new questions about moral obligations and sought to integrate his intellectual pursuits with his Islamic identity.[11]

Academic career

In 1958, al-Faruqi was offered a visiting fellowship at McGill University's Faculty of Divinity. He joined McGill University's Institute of Islamic Studies at the invitation of its founder, Wilfred Cantwell Smith. From 1958 to 1961, he taught alongside Smith.[12] During his tenure, he studied Christian theology and Judaism and became acquainted with Pakistani philosopher Fazlur Rahman, significantly shaping his comparative religious framework and his critical approach to interfaith dialogue.[13]

In 1961, Fazlur Rahman arranged a two-year appointment for al-Faruqi at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, Pakistan, to expose him to diverse Muslim cultures. Al-Faruqi worked as a visiting professor there from 1961 to 1963. His exposure to diverse Muslim cultures and his studies of Western and Islamic traditions significantly shaped his later works and theories on comparative religion and meta-religion.[14] [15]

In 1964, al-Faruqi returned to the United States and simultaneously served as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago's Divinity School and as an associate professor at Syracuse University.

In 1968, he joined Temple University as a professor of religion, where he founded the Islamic Studies Program and held the position until he died in 1986.[16] During his tenure at Temple University, al-Faruqi mentored many students, including his first doctoral student, John Esposito.[17] [18]

Philosophy and thought

Early thought: Arabism

Al-Faruqi’s early intellectual focus centered on ‘urubah (Arabism). He argued that ‘urubah was the core identity uniting all Muslims into a single community of believers (ummah) and viewed Arabic as essential for fully understanding Islamic teachings, as it is the language of the Qur’an. Al-Faruqi saw ‘urubah as inseparable from Muslim identity, encompassing both linguistic and religious dimensions.[19] His concept of Arabism emphasized that Islam and monotheism were contributions of Arab consciousness to humanity, challenging modern race-based nationalism.[20] Al-Faruqi asserted that reviving Islamic civilization required restoring the Arabic language and culture as central elements for fostering the cultural and religious unity of Muslims.[21]

Al-Faruqi also highlighted tawhid (monotheism) as a defining feature of Arab religious consciousness, linking it to the shared monotheistic traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He emphasized that Islam and monotheism, as gifts of Arab consciousness, contrasted with modern nationalist ideologies.[22]

However, some scholars criticized al-Faruqi’s stance as essentialist and overly Arab-centric.[23] Critics, including non-Arab Muslim intellectuals, challenged his assertion that Arabic was the only suitable linguistic structure for Islamic thought. His exposure to diverse Muslim cultures during his time in Pakistan initially did little to shift his Arab-centric views.[24]

Shift to Islamism

Al-Faruqi's perspectives evolved significantly after relocating to the United States. His involvement with the Muslim Students Association (MSA) at Temple University exposed him to diverse Muslim students, leading him to reconsider his earlier focus on Arabism. He began to prioritize a broader Islamic identity over Arab nationalism, stating, "Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine".[25] Reflecting further on his identity, he remarked, "I asked myself: Who am I? A Palestinian, a philosopher, a liberal humanist? My answer was: I am a Muslim".[26]

He explored the historical presence and impact of Muslims in the New World, highlighting the early settlement of African Muslims, the challenges they faced during slavery, and the subsequent waves of Muslim immigration. Al-Faruqi discussed the roles of Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X in shaping the Islamic movement among African Americans. His insights into the ethical framework of Islam, the concept of Ummah, and the responsibilities of Muslim immigrants have been influential in framing the Muslim experience in North America.[27]

This engagement also influenced his approach to interfaith dialogue, where he saw the importance of a unified Islamic identity to foster meaningful conversations with non-Muslims. His involvement in the MSA and encounters with diverse Muslim cultures in the United States reinforced his broader Islamic identity over his earlier Arab-centric views.[28]

Views on Tawhid

See main article: Tawhid.

Al-Faruqi’s views on tawhid included a critical perspective on Sufism, which he considered to emphasize mysticism and esoteric practices. He critiqued Sufism for its mysticism, arguing that it often detracted from the rational and practical aspects of Islam.[29] Al-Faruqi was inspired by Mu'tazilī theologians such as al-Nazzam and Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar, who advocated for the use of reason and logic in understanding Islamic principles. Additionally, he found value in the works of the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ), whose writings combined Islamic teachings with elements of Greek philosophy. Al-Faruqi’s emphasis on tawhid extended beyond theology, promoting an integrated approach that included rational thought and ethical conduct in various aspects of life.[30]

Meta-religion

Al-Faruqi sought to establish meta-religion principles based on reason to evaluate religions against universal standards rather than against each other. This ambitious undertaking sought common ground for understanding and cooperation between different faiths. He proposed several guiding principles for dialogue, including that all dialogue is subject to critique, communication must obey laws of internal and external coherence, dialogue should correspond with reality and be free from "canonical figurizations", and a focus on ethical questions rather than theological disputes.[31] Al-Faruqi's concept of meta-religion involves belief in God or Ultimate Reality as the totally other. He emphasized that the study of religion should not be about testing its validity through external or functional tests but about understanding the condition of the homo religiosus.[32]

Al-Faruqi believed that meta-religious dialogue could serve as a means to achieve mutual understanding and respect between different faith communities, helping to bridge the gap created by doctrinal differences. His focus on ethics over theology was intended to facilitate more constructive and less contentious interfaith engagements.

Islamization of knowledge

See main article: Islamization of knowledge.

Al-Faruqi contributed significantly to developing the concept of holistic knowledge, expressing concerns about the secularization of knowledge in Muslim societies. He discussed "the malaise of the ummah" and argued that reliance on Western secular tools and methods led to a disconnect with the ecological and social realities of Muslim nations, often overlooking breaches of Islamic ethics.[33] He emphasized the importance of integrating Islamic principles with modern knowledge to address contemporary challenges and maintain the ethical integrity of the ummah.

Al-Faruqi's later intellectual efforts focused on the Islamization of knowledge. The concept of the Islamization of knowledge was a response to the perceived secularization and Western dominance in Muslim educational systems. His approach aimed to integrate Islamic values with modern scientific and academic disciplines, striving for a holistic epistemology that maintained ethical integrity.[34] He sought to harmonize Islamic principles with contemporary academic disciplines, advocating for a holistic integration of faith and reason.[35] His work in this area culminated in the founding of IIIT, which aimed to develop an Islamic epistemology and methodology for various fields of study.

Al-Faruqi emphasized the need for integrating Islamic knowledge with modern sciences. He believed in developing a unified Islamic curriculum that incorporates contemporary disciplines while grounding them in Islamic thought.[36] His approach involved a systematic process for identifying and eliminating elements incompatible with Islamic principles and integrating Islamic values into various academic disciplines. This approach aimed to produce scholars proficient in both areas, capable of addressing contemporary challenges from an Islamic perspective. Al-Faruqi also stressed the importance of curriculum development, practical strategies for implementation, and a holistic approach to reforming the entire educational system.

Some scholars have critiqued the "Islamization of knowledge" approach for primarily targeting the humanities and excluding modern scientific knowledge. This critique suggests that this focus could lead to a sociological emphasis on Islamic knowledge and potentially neglect the secularizing impact of modern science.[37]

Views on Zionism

See main article: Anti-Zionism. Al-Faruqi was a vocal critic of Zionism, viewing it as incompatible with Judaism due to its nationalist ideology.[38] He argued that the injustices caused by Zionism necessitated its dismantling. He proposed that former Israeli Jews who renounced Zionism could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, adhering to Jewish law as interpreted by rabbinic courts within an Islamic framework. This stance underscored his commitment to a vision of justice rooted in Islamic principles.[39]

Scholarly achievements

Al-Faruqi contributed to Islamic studies through his writings and involvement in academic and interfaith organizations. He authored over 100 articles in scholarly journals and magazines and published 25 books, including Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas (1968), Islam and the Problem of Israel (1980), and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications For Thought And Life (1982). His works addressed a wide range of topics, including ethics, theology, interfaith dialogue, and the integration of Islamic thought into contemporary academic disciplines.

Al-Faruqi was the first Muslim academic to engage in the phenomenological and history of religious approaches. He viewed these approaches as contributing to the appreciation of Islam as part of human religious history and enabling Muslim engagement in the modern study of religion and as a participant in building understanding between religions.

In 1973, al-Faruqi established the Islamic Studies Group in the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and chaired it for ten years. This initiative provided a formal platform for Muslim scholars to engage in dialogue with scholars from other religious traditions, particularly in the fields of comparative religion and interfaith studies. In addition to his academic work, al-Faruqi held leadership positions such as vice president of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium and president of the American Islamic College in Chicago.

In March 1977, al-Faruqi played a significant role in the First World Conference on Muslim Education in Makkah. This conference included participants such as Muhammad Kamal Hassan, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, and Syed Ali Ashraf, among others. The conference laid the groundwork for establishing Islamic universities in Dhaka, Islamabad, Kuala Lumpur, Kampala, and Niger. Al-Faruqi was instrumental in the conference's deliberations and the development of its action plans.

He also served as an adviser to political leaders in the Muslim world, including Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan and Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia. During Zia-ul-Haq’s administration, al-Faruqi contributed to the establishment of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which aimed to integrate Islamic values with contemporary academic disciplines. In Malaysia, al-Faruqi advised Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, assisting in the foundation of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983. Both institutions were established to combine religious and secular knowledge within a holistic educational framework.

In 1980, Ismail al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) with Taha Jabir Alalwani, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, and Anwar Ibrahim.

Additionally, al-Faruqi was involved in interfaith dialogue, promoting mutual understanding and cooperation among different religious communities. His efforts aimed to foster a global environment of peace and respect, highlighting the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.[40]

Contemporary relevance

Al-Faruqi's ideas on the Islamization of knowledge continue to influence contemporary Islamic thought. His emphasis on integrating Islamic principles with modern academic disciplines remains relevant among scholars and educators who aim to harmonize faith and reason. His work is frequently cited in academic conferences and publications related to Islamic thought and education.[41] [42] The concept of Islamization has inspired curriculum development in universities such as the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) and the International Islamic University, Islamabad.[43]

Al-Faruqi’s contributions to interfaith dialogue are also widely recognized. His approach emphasized finding common ethical and moral ground between faith traditions, particularly Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Scholars have noted that his focus on ethical principles over theological differences fostered mutual understanding and respect among religious communities.[44] [45] [46] His framework has been influential in global efforts to promote peace and cooperation across religious divides.[16]

Al-Faruqi's impact extends beyond academia into practical applications. His work in religious studies inspired the creation of related academic programs, particularly in institutions that have adopted his methodologies, such as the mandatory religious studies courses at the International Islamic University Malaysia, which aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of spiritual traditions and their civilizational significance.[43]

Additionally, al-Faruqi’s scholarly works, such as Christian Ethics[47] and Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths,[48] continue to serve as key resources in interfaith dialogue and comparative religion studies. These works have shaped discussions in both Islamic and Western academic circles, highlighting the intersections between these religious traditions.[16] [43] [49]

His contributions have been recognized posthumously, particularly in communities like Montreal, where his efforts in both scholarship and community-building left a lasting impact.[44]

Death

See main article: Murder of the Faruqis.

In May 1986, al-Faruqi and his wife were murdered at their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania, by Joseph Louis Young, also known as Yusuf Ali. Young confessed to the crime, was sentenced to death, and died in prison of natural causes in 1996.[50] [51] [52] The attack also left their daughter, Anmar al-Zein, severely injured but she survived after extensive medical treatment. Various theories have been suggested regarding the motivations behind the murders, including a botched burglary and politically motivated assassination.[53] [54] [55] During a conference at the International Islamic University Malaysia in 2008, it was revealed that al-Faruqi’s father had made special supplications for him to become a great scholar and to die as a martyr (shahīd), which were ultimately fulfilled.

Bibliography

Dissertations

Books

In English

In Arabic

In the press

Translated texts

Posthumous works

Articles

See also

Additional reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: 2021 . Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi . Kuala Lumpur . IBT Books . Imtiyaz Yusuf . 3.
  2. Web site: Faruqi, Ismail Raji al- (1986) . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford Reference . 2024-07-04.
  3. Badri . Malik . 2014 . Psychological reflections on Ismail al-Faruqi's life and contributions . The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences . 31 . 2 . 145–152. 10.35632/ajis.v31i2.1052 .
  4. Book: Esposito . John L. . Voll . John O. . Makers of Contemporary Islam . Ismail al-Faruqi . 2001 . Oxford University Press . 52–70.
  5. Al-Faruqi . Isma'il Raji . 1949 . The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics) . Master's thesis . Indiana University . Bloomington.
  6. Al-Faruqi . Isma'il . On Justifying the Good . PhD thesis . 1952 . Indiana University . Bloomington.
  7. Book: Zebiri, Kate . Muslims and Christians Face to Face . 1997 . Oneworld Publications . Oxford . 1851681337 . 35–37.
  8. Book: Scheler, Max . On the Eternal Man . 1960 . SCM Press . London . Bernard Noble.
  9. Book: Scheler, Max . Man's Place in Nature . 1961 . Beacon Press . Boston.
  10. Book: 2021 . Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi . Kuala Lumpur . IBT Books . Imtiyaz Yusuf . 4.
  11. Book: Fletcher, Charles . Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Inter-faith Dialogue and the Work of Ismail Al-Faruqi . 2014 . I.B.Tauris . United Kingdom . 34.
  12. News: Islamic scholar slain in U.S. was figure in Montreal . Balfour . Clair . July 31, 1986 . The Gazette . Montreal .
  13. Book: Zebiri, Kate . Muslims and Christians Face to Face . 1997 . Oneworld Publications . Oxford . 1851681337 . 42–44.
  14. Book: Zebiri, Kate . Muslims and Christians Face to Face . 1997 . Oneworld Publications . Oxford . 1851681337 . 90.
  15. Book: Siddiqui, Ataullah . Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century . 1997 . Macmillan Press Ltd . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London . 0333673581 . 73.
  16. Yusuf . Imtiyaz . Ismail al-Faruqi's Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion . Islamic Studies . 53 . 1/2 . 108–110 . Spring–Summer 2014 . Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad . 44627369 .
  17. Book: Quraishi, M. Tariq . Ismail al-Faruqi: An Enduring Legacy . 1986 . MSA Publications . 9.
  18. Editorial . The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences . 28 . 3 . 2011 . ii-xii.
  19. Book: Al-Faruqi, Isma'il R. . 'Urubah and Religion: An Analysis of the Dominant Ideas of Arabism and of Islam as Its Heights Moment of Consciousness . On Arabism . 1 . Amsterdam . Djambatan . 1962.
  20. Book: Siddiqui, Ataullah . Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century . 1997 . Macmillan Press Ltd . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London . 0333673581 . 85.
  21. Book: Siddiqui, Ataullah . Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century . 1997 . Macmillan Press Ltd . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London . 0333673581 . 80.
  22. Book: Bakar, Osman . The Intellectual Impact of American Muslim Scholars on the Muslim World, with Special Reference to Southeast Asia . Strum . Philippa . 2005 . Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . 1-933549-98-X . 96–97.
  23. Chejne . Anwar G. . Summer 1963 . Review of On Arabism, 'Urubah and Religion: A Study of the Fundamental Ideas of Arabism and Islam at Its Highest Moment of Consciousness, by Isma'il Ragi A. al-Faruqi . Middle East Journal . 17 . 3 . 330–331 . Middle East Institute . 4323622 . 23 June 2024 .
  24. Book: Fletcher, Charles D. . Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi . London . I.B. Tauris . 2015 . 35–37.
  25. Ba-Yunus . Ilyas . Al Faruqi and Beyond: Future Directions in Islamization of Knowledge . The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences . 5 . 1 . 1988 . 14.
  26. Book: Quraishi, M. Tariq . Ismail al-Faruqi: An Enduring Legacy . 1986 . MSA Publications . 9.
  27. Book: al-Faruqi . Ismail R. . Islamic Ideals in North America . Waugh . Earle H. . Abu-Laban . Baha . Qureshi . Regula B. . The Muslim Community in North America . 1983 . University of Alberta Press . Edmonton, Alberta . 088864034X . 243596066 . 260–270.
  28. Book: Fletcher, Charles D. . Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi . London . I.B. Tauris . 2015 . 35–37.
  29. Book: Zebiri, Kate . Muslims and Christians Face to Face . 1997 . Oneworld Publications . Oxford . 1851681337 . 53–55.
  30. Encyclopedia: Yusuf . Imtiyaz . Ismail Al Faruqi . Encyclopaedia of Islam . Fleet . Kate . Krämer . Gudrun . Matringe . Denis . Nawas . John . Rowson . Everett . 3 . Koninklijke Brill NV . 2022.
  31. Book: Fletcher, Charles D. . Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi . London . I.B. Tauris . 2015 . 43–45.
  32. Yusuf . Imtiyaz . Ismail al-Faruqi's Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion . Islamic Studies . 53 . 1/2 . 99–115 . Spring–Summer 2014 . Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad . 44627369 .
  33. Ahsan . Muhammad Amimul . Islamization of Knowledge: An Agenda for Muslim Intellectuals . Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration and Management . 13 . 10 . 2013.
  34. Book: Zebiri, Kate . Muslims and Christians Face to Face . 1997 . Oneworld Publications . Oxford . 1851681337 . 67–69.
  35. Book: Al-Faruqi, Isma'il Raji . Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan . IIIT . 1982.
  36. Hashim . Rosnani . Rossidy . Imron . Islamization of Knowledge: A Comparative Analysis of the Conceptions of Al-Attas and Al-Faruqi . Intellectual Discourse . 8 . 1 . 2000 . 19–45.
  37. Book: Kalin, Ibrahim . God, Life and the Cosmos . Ashgate . 2002 . 60–61.
  38. Book: Al-Faruqi, Isma'il R. . Islam and the Problem of Israel . Kuala Lumpur . The Other Press . 2003 . 103-104.
  39. Ismail R. al-Faruqi, "Islam and Zionism," in John L. Esposito, ed., Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 265.
  40. Book: Yusuf, Imtiyaz . Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi's Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought . 2012 . I. B. Tauris . London.
  41. Wan Sabri . W. Y. . Zuriati . M. R. . Tasnim . A. R. . Ahmad . N. A. . 2015 . Islamic Civilization: Its Significance in al-Faruqi's Islamization of Knowledge . International Journal of Islamic Thought . 7 . June . 49 . 10.24035/ijit.7.2015.005 . July 10, 2024 . 2232-1314.
  42. Shaikh . Saulat . Ismail al-Faruqi's Concept of the Islamization of Knowledge . Journal of Islamic Studies . 15 . 3 . 2015 . 49–57.
  43. Book: Yusuf, Imtiyaz . Isma'il al Faruqi: The Link Between Tudor and the Muslim World . Breakthrough to Dialogue: The Story of Temple University Department of Religion . Leonard Swidler . iPub Global Connection . 2019 . 179–199.
  44. Ghamari-Tabrizi . Behrooz . Loving America and Longing for Home: Isma'il al-Faruqi and the Emergence of the Muslim Diaspora in North America . International Migration . 42 . 2 . 2004 . 62–86. 10.1111/j.0020-7985.2004.00281.x .
  45. Khan . Rahim . Al-Faruqi's Interfaith Dialogue and Its Contemporary Significance . Journal of Islamic Studies . 15 . 3 . 2018 . 209–223.
  46. Zain . Nurul . The Role of Ismail al-Faruqi in Interfaith Dialogue . Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration and Management . 13 . 10 . 2013 . 10–18.
  47. Book: Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji . Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas . 1967 . McGill University Press . Montreal . 450143.
  48. Book: Al-Faruqi, Ismail Raji . Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths . 1981 . IIIT . Herndon, VA.
  49. Malik . Mohd. Ashraf . Contribution of Muslim Scholars to Comparative Religions: Selected Works Study . Insight Islamicus . 23 . 2023 . 74–85.
  50. Web site: Black Muslim Charged in Slaying of Islamic Scholar and His Wife. January 18, 1987. The New York Times.
  51. Web site: Confession Details Stalking, Slaying Of Islamic Scholars. O'Bryan. Ruth. July 8, 1987. The Morning Call. May 13, 2018. July 2, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180702011159/http://articles.mcall.com/1987-07-08/news/2595065_1_confession-young-knife. dead.
  52. Web site: Inside the Capitol (Joseph Louis Young dies of natural causes on death row). Bell. Adam. March 11, 1996. The Patriot News.
  53. Web site: Focus on Arabs and Islam. Toth. Anthony B.. November 1986. Washington Report on Middle East Affairs.
  54. News: Assassination motive behind al-Faruqi killings . New Straits Times . August 20, 1986 . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia . June 22, 2024.
  55. News: Zionist backlash against Arab intellectuals . New Straits Times . August 21, 1986 . Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia . June 22, 2024.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Ismail al-Faruqi".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.