Hindu–Islamic relations explained

Interactions between Muslims and Hindus began in the 7th century, after the advent of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. These interactions were mainly by trade throughout the Indian Ocean. Historically, these interactions formed contrasting patterns in northern and southern India. While there is a history of conquest and domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been peaceful.[1] However, historical evidence has shown that violence had existed by the year 1700 A.D.[2]

In the 16th century, the Mughal Empire was established. Under the Mughals, India experienced a period of relative stability and prosperity.[3] [4] [5] The Mughals were known for their religious tolerance,[6] [7] [8] [9] and they actively patronized the arts and literature. During the Mughal era, Indian art and culture thrived, with the construction of grand monuments such as the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. While the Mughals promoted religious harmony and cultural advancements and nurtured Hindu scholars, poets, and artists, facilitating a dynamic cultural interchange that enriched both Islamic and Hindu traditions, there were instances of religious conflicts between the Mughals and the Rajput over control of territories. Aurangzeb was criticized for his policies of religious intolerance towards Hindus.[10]

During the 18th to 20th centuries, India was ruled by the British, who introduced a policy of divide and rule to maintain their control over the country.[11] [12] [13] The British also introduced a system of separate electorates, which further exacerbated the divide between the Hindu and Muslim communities.[14] [15] The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, was a major uprising against British rule in India. The rebellion was fueled by a range of grievances, including economic exploitation, social and religious discrimination, and political oppression. While the rebellion was not solely based on religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims, these tensions did play a role in fueling the conflict. During the rebellion, there were instances of both Muslim and Hindu soldiers and civilians fighting together against the British, as well as instances of conflict between the two communities.[16] [17] [18]

Islam and Hinduism share some ritual practices, such as fasting and pilgrimage, but their views differ on various aspects. There are also hundreds of shared ritual spaces, called dargahs (literally, “doorway” or “threshold”), for Hindus and Muslims. These mark shrines for revered Muslim (frequently Sufi) leaders and are visited by both Muslims and Hindus. Their interaction has witnessed periods of cooperation and syncretism, and periods of religious discrimination, intolerance, and violence. As a religious minority in India, Muslims are part of the Indian culture and have lived with Hindus for over 13 centuries. Despite the longtime assertion that the origins of Muslim-Hindu tensions were greatly attributed to 19th Century British colonial rule in India, it has been argued that Britain had little influence on constructing the religious identities of Islam and Hinduism in the region and that divisions existed beforehand as well.[19] For example, 18th-century Mughal–Maratha Wars. Ajay Verghese argues that the Hindu-Muslim conflict in India can be better understood by analyzing the historical relationship between the two communities. He contends that precolonial India was marked by a fluidity of religious identity and that religious boundaries were not always clear-cut. This led to a degree of intermingling between Muslims and Hindus, but also created conditions for tension and conflict.

Theology

Islam is a monotheistic religion in which God is called Allah, and the final Islamic prophet is Muhammad, whom Muslims believe delivered the central Islamic scripture, the Qurān.[20] Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal faith of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam (believed to be the first man), Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others; these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths.[21] [22] The Quran and the Ḥadīth literature are the primary Islamic scriptures, while the sunnah consists of the Islamic traditional customs and practices which all Muslims are expected to follow. Throughout its rich history, Islamic civilization has made notable scientific achievements which encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine, mathematics, astronomy, agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics.[23] [24] [25] The consequence of Islam's rigorous monotheism led to a degree of panentheism, sharing similarities with the Hindu idea of the Absolute (Brahman).[26] The Islamic mystical tradition predates contact with Hinduism, and Hinduistic monotheistic interpretations seem to be influenced by Islamic Sufism.[26] The concept of Brahman was rarely subject of criticism from the perceptive of Islamic tawhid, rather the Hindu belief that prophecy wouldn't be necessary to guide mankind.[27]

Hinduism, also called sanatana dharma (eternal dharma), is an Indian religion and a way of life primarily practiced in the Indian subcontinent.[28] Hinduism is an umbrella-term for the fusion of several Indian religions and traditions. Hinduism does not have a founder or a site-of-origin. Hindus can be polytheistic, monotheistic or even atheistic. The popular themes of Hinduism include ahimsa, karma, reincarnation, kama, dharma, artha and moksha. Hinduism mostly shares common terms with the dhārmic religions that it has influenced, including Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism.[29] The central scriptures of Hinduism are the Shruti and Smruti texts. Shruti texts consist of the four Vedas (which comprise the original Vedic hymns, or Samhitas) and three tiers of commentaries upon the samhitas, namely the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upanishads.[30] These texts are considered to be authentic knowledge and wisdom of the past, collated, compiled, and codified into written form for future generations. The Smruti texts include Purānas and the epics of Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata and its crucial part, the Bhagvad Gita. These texts are less authentic but more popular than the Shrutis.

Comparisons

God and deities

See main article: God in Hinduism and God in Islam.

God

Hinduism is a system of thought in which the concept of God varies according to its diverse traditions.[31] [32] [33] [34] Hinduism spans a wide range of beliefs such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, atheism and nontheism.[31] [32] [35] [36] One popular theological interpretation is the Advaita Vedanta tradition, which relies mainly on the Upanishads and declares absolute monism, exemplified in the concept of Brahman (the ultimate reality).[37] [38] When a person is devoid of ignorance (Avidyā), they find the truth by realizing that their true nature, pure soul, or inner Self (Ātman) is identical to Brahman.[39] Until then, they are usually ignorant of the ultimate reality and therefore believe that the material world around them is real and indulges in it, when the world is actually an illusion (Māyā).[39] The Brahman, which is absolute and pure, and the Ātman, which is also absolute and pure, are the same in this school of Hindu thought, which exemplifies the Hindu concept of God.[37] [39]

Islam is a system of thought that believes in the concept of the unity and uniqueness of God (Tawḥīd), which declares monotheism, and is considered to be the defining doctrine of the Islamic religion.[40] God in Islam is conceived as the absolute one, the all-powerful and all-knowing ruler of the universe, and the creator of everything in existence.[20] [41] [42] According to Islam, God is transcendent and is not part of the universe (i.e. there is no incarnation of God, no "Son of God", etc.) but a power behind all aspects of the universe.[43] Thus, Muslims do not attribute human forms to God. God is described and referred to by several names or attributes.[44] One of the five pillars of Islam is that Muslims affirm the Shahada in the five canonical daily prayers, which declares that "There is no other god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."[45] [46]

Despite the obvious discrepancy between Islamic monotheism and Hindu polytheism, some Muslim authors showed approval of the Hindu religion, especially the to the concept of Brahman. Sometimes, Brahmans were even excepted from the Jizya (taxes for non-Muslims).[47] [48] Gardizi identifies the God of the Brahmans with Allah.[49]

Ibn al-Jawzi (1116 – 1201) criticizes in his Talbīs Iblīs (the deception of Satan) that the Brahmans are led astray by means of denying the prophets and their performance of self-harming rituals to get closer to God, but not by their lack of "monotheism".[50]

Al-Biruni famously recorded the beliefs of Hindus in a descriptive manner. He notes that although the common people would worship idols, the educated people would be "entirely free from worshipping anything but God alone and would never dream of worshipping an image manufactured to represent him." He does not blame idolatry on Hinduism, but to a lack of proper education. The difference between monotheistic religions and Hinduism would not be that strong, since all uneducated people, even among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, would need concrete objects to worship.[49]

Amir Khusrau (1253 – 1325) writes that Hindus have gone astray, but so have other religions and Hinduism would still consist of beliefs shared by Muslims: They would believe in the oneness and eternity of God as creator and sustainer. For that reason, he favors Hinduism before materialists (dahriyya), dualists (thanawiyya), Christianity who attribute to God spirit and progeny, and the star-worshippers (akhtariyyan) who acknowledge seven deities. The Hindu (precisely Brahmanist) would worship animals, stones, and the sun, but the Brahmanist accepts that they do not really bear likeness to God and are God's creation, they are only worshipped due to tradition.[49]

Although there are a number of diverse conceptions of God and deities within Hinduism, most fuqaha (Muslim jurists), such as Muslim heresiographer al-Shahrastani, consider all of them to be polytheistic and blasphemous. Opposition towards Brahmanism stems from the polytheistic teachings within Hindu-culture. The Brahmans would have taught to the people not that the idols are symbols of God, but deities themselves.[51] Nonetheless, most scholars agree that Hindus should be considered dhimmi.[49]

Deities

Divine spirits in Hindu-lore were integrated into the monotheistic Islamic worldview by Muslim authors writing about Hinduism. They acknowledged that these spirits would exude a mesmerizing fascination on people, even Muslims couldn't withstand. Arab Muslim geographer al-Maqdisī (CE) wrote about Indian deities, that they have the power to enchant people, even Muslims, to worship them. A Muslim is said to have visited them and abandoned Islam. Besides their power to distract even Muslims from worshiping Allah, they may have real magical powers and even grant their worshippers wishes.[52]

In al-Tabasi's (d. 1089) compendium about magic and sorcery Mahakal, an epithet for the Hindu deity Shiva, is mentioned. Abu Sa'id al Gardizi (fl. 1049) further elaborates that this deva (dīv) would have the power to teach incantations ('aza'im) and how to perform wonders ('aja'ib).[53]

To harmonize the existence of such spirits with the monotheistic worldview of Islam, it was assumed that the Indian deities were created by Allah, however, prior to the beings revealed in the Quran. Abu Ali Bal'ami (d. 992–997) asserts that the deva (div) were created long before the angels and jinn.[54] Unlike jinn, the div would have refused to obey the Prophet Solomon.[55]

In the Nabivamsa, by Syed Sultan, identifies the suras and asura with jinn and jann respectively. The Hindu spirits are supposed to be created over 4 million years ago, while angels (phiristā) settle on earth afterwards. Since the different beings are constantly at war, Niranjan sents the Vedas to the Asuras and Devas, but eventually decides to command the angels to get rid of them. Afterwards, God creates the progenitor of humankind Adam. This story reflects early hadith material regarding the life of jinn before Adam was created. According to Islamic sources, God let the jinn live on earth and sent angels under the leadership of Azazil as authority over them. Later, God decides to replace them by humankind.[56]

Scriptures and messengers

The sacred scriptures of Islam are the Qurān and the Ḥadīths, which report what Muhammad said and did. Ḥadīths are varied and have many versions. According to Islamic doctrine, Jesus Christ was also one of the messengers from God.[57] Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last messenger and the Qurān was the last revelation from God, delivered to him through the angel Jibrīl.[58] The Ḥadīths contain the sunnah, the reports of Muhammad's life, sayings, actions, and examples he set. The Qurān and the reliable Ḥadīths are considered in Islam as the sources of Islamic law or Sharīʿah.[59]

Unlike Islam, Hinduism doesn't have centralized religious authorities, or governing bodies. It has some defining historical and religious texts, the sacred Hindu scriptures, traditional ecclesiastical order, incarnations, and the legal code Manusmṛti.[60] [61] Spiritual knowledge of Hinduism is contained in texts called Śruti ("what is heard") and Smṛti ("what is remembered"). These sacred texts discuss diverse topics, including theology, cosmology, mythology, philosophy, rituals and rites of passage, and many others. Major scriptures in Hinduism include the Vedas and Upanishads (both Śruti), the Epics (Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata), Purāṇas, Dharmaśāstras, Āgamas, and the Bhagavad Gītā (all Smṛti).[62] [63]

According to Muslim scholars, Brahmans reject that God would send messengers. The Brahmans argue, if God wanted humans to understand his will, he would have created mankind accordingly. Thus, they assert, that human reason is sufficient to understand God's will.[27] Muslim scholars on the other hand assert, that prophecy is necessary for mankind in religious matters. Asharites argue that justification of morality relies on revelation. In contrast, Maturidites assert morality can be detected by reason, but mankind requires prophecy for supernatural matters.[64]

Similarities

See also: Hindu–Muslim unity, Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, Unity in diversity, Religious syncretism and Hindutva.

According to Islam, after death, one either enters Paradise (Jannah) or Hell (Jahannam), depending on their deeds. Unlike Muslims, Hindus believe in a cycle of reincarnation.[65] However, the concept of higher and lower realms of existence can be found in Hinduism, though the realms are temporary places.[66]

Both Muslims and Hindus acknowledge demons (Shaitan/Asura), who are constantly inciting war between the desires of humans and the Divine.[67] Asuras are part of Hindu mythology along with Devas, Yakshas and Rakshasas, and are featured in one of many cosmological theories in Hinduism.[68] [69] Asuras are sometimes considered nature spirits. They constantly battle with the devas.[70]

Both believe in the existence of an entirety Supreme Power, either called Brahman or Allah. Brahman is a metaphysical concept that is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.[71] Allah is the Arabic word for God in Abrahamic religions. Assimilated in local lore, the Islamic concept of God became comparable to the notion of the ultimate reality expressing itself through different names as the creator, the maintainer, and the destroyer.[72] Some Islamic scholars believe that the worlds created by God will perish and be created anew, resembling the Hindu notion of an endless process of generation and decay.[73] [74]

Pilgrimage is found in both religions: Hajj & Umrah to Mecca in Islam and Kumbh Mela and Tirtha Yatra in Hinduism.[75] Muslims walk seven times around the Kaaba during Hajj, which is called Tawaf.[76] Hindus walk one or more times around the center (Garbhagriya) of a temple (one to twenty-one),[77] [78] [79] [80] called Parikrama (known in Sanskrit as pradakśiṇā). Both of them are commonly called circumambulation.[81] [82]

Some Muslim scholars and a few Hindu scholars like Ved Prakash Upaddhay[83] [84] also argue that mentions of Kalki refer to Muhammad in some Hindu scriptures.[85] Sri Sri Ravi Shankar claimed in his book "Hinduism and Islam: The Common Thread" that Muhammad is explicitly prophesied in Bhavishya Purana.[86] [87]

Sufism

The 10th-century Persian polymath Al-Biruni in his book Tahaqeeq Ma Lilhind Min Makulat Makulat Fi Aliaqbal Am Marzula (Critical Study of Indian Speech: Rationally Acceptable or Rejected) discusses the similarity of some Sufism concepts with aspects of Hinduism, such as: Atman with ruh, tanasukh with reincarnation, Moksha with Fanaa, Ittihad with Nirvana: union between Paramatman in Jivatma, Avatar or Incarnation with Hulul, Vedanta with Wahdat al-Wujud, Mujahadah with Sadhana.

Other scholars have likewise compared the Sufi concept of Waḥdat al-Wujūd with Advaita Vedanta,[88] Fanaa to Samadhi,[74] Muraqaba to Dhyana and tariqa to the Noble Eightfold Path.[89]

Sufi theologian Martin Lings says,

Al-Biruni observed in his history of India that the fundamental ideas behind metempsychosis or reincarnation in Hinduism are not very different from the concept of the immanence of God in all things and the idea of a universal soul in some Sufi doctrines, and that for Sufis who believe in such things, "the course of metempsychosis is of no consequence".[90]

The Sufi poet Jalaluddin Rumi wrote verse that played on such themes:

The 9th-century Iranian mystic Bayazid Bostami is alleged to have imported certain concepts from Hindusim into his version of Sufism under the conceptual umbrella of baqaa, meaning perfection.[91] Ibn al-Arabi and Mansur al-Hallaj both referred to Muhammad as having attained perfection and titled him as Al-Insān al-Kāmil.[92] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] The Sufism concept of hulul has similarly been compared with the idea of Ishvaratva, that God dwells in some creatures in Hinduism and Buddhism, and godhood of Jesus in Christianity.[98]

Ziaur Rahman Azmi, a follower Salafi movement, says that the reason behind Hindus' negative perception of Islam is mostly the spread of Sufism in India, as he believes Sufism "distorts" the Islamic ideas of prophethood and Monotheism. He claims Sufism includes idolatry, pointing to Sufi mausoleums and the practices of Tawaf and Sajdah that occur at them.[99]

Differences

Foods

Islam has restrictions on food, such as how meat is prepared.[100] Halal meat is prepared by ritual slaughter that involves cutting the jugular veins of an animal with a sharp knife. This leads to death via bleeding.[101] Meat from animals that die of natural causes or by accident is not allowed.

In Hinduism, food habits are left as a choice for Hindus, and both meat and alcohol consumption is accepted. However, some Hindu communities prefer vegetarianism or lacto-vegetarianism due to their belief in ahimsa or reincarnation.[102] There are varied opinions regarding the permissibility of eating meat in Hinduism, depending upon the interpretation of the Hindu scriptures. Some Hindu sects emphasize vegetarianism. Hindus avoid eating cow-based beef, but they may eat water buffalo-based beef or pork as an alternative.[103]

Slaughtering a cow is considered to be a religious taboo by Hindus, who consider the cow to be a sacred animal.

Circumcision

Khitan, the religious rite of circumcision, is considered obligatory or recommendable for male Muslims.[104] The Qur'an does not mention circumcision explicitly in any verse, but it is noted in the Hadiths of Islam. Circumcision is not compulsory in Islam, but is an important ritual aimed at improving cleanliness. It is strongly encouraged but not enforced.[105]

Circumcision is not a religious requirement in Hinduism. Hinduism discourages non-medical circumcision, as, according to them, the body is made by the almighty God, and nobody has the right to alter it.[106]

Caste and creed

See main article: Caste system in India and Caste system among South Asian Muslims. Hindu cultural texts such as the Manusmriti classify people through stratification and class, i.e. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras and allows fluidity and movement of people from one caste to another depending on their profession and what they choose as their “dharma” which literally translates to duty or purpose. The Hindu caste system has been described as four Varnas or as thousands of endogamous hereditary groups called jātis.[107] [108] [109] [110] [111]

Islam requires egalitarianism and is against discrimination based on caste, creed or race[112] [113] [114] Islamic texts do not segregate Muslims. Hadīth, however, mentions the prophecy of the Muslim Ummah being separated into 73 sects based on practices of Islam, not class. There are differences in practices within Muslim communities as traditions differ according to geography, but spiritually all Muslims are equal.[115] [116] [117]

Consanguineous marriage

Consanguineous marriages are those where the bride and groom share a grandparent or near ancestor.[118] Islam prohibits marriage due to consanguinity with ancestors, descendants, siblings, siblings of ancestors and descendants of siblings.[119] However, marriage with first-cousins (3rd degree consanguinity) and farther removed consanguineous relatives is allowed.[120]

Hinduism forbids consanguineous marriage of parallel cousins, and strongly recommends seven degrees of biological separation between bride and groom.[121] However, for many communities in South India, it is common for Hindu cross cousins to marry, with matrilateral cross cousin marriages being especially favored. These practices are particularly followed in landed communities such as the Vellalars, who wish to keep wealth within the family.

Jizya

Islamic scriptures compel the payment of a special tax called Jizya from non-Muslims (dhimmi), who are not liable to pay Zaka'at, who live in a Muslim state.[122] [123] Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with communal autonomy in a Muslim state.[124] [125] If anyone could not afford this tax, they would not have to pay anything.[126] There is no jizya tax upon women, children, elders as well as the poor and the ill.[127] Also those who joined the military service were also not liable to pay the tax.[128]

Islamic stipulation that Muslims must "do battle to guard" the dhimmis and "put no burden on them greater than they can bear" remained a cornerstone of Islamic policy.[129] [130]

There is no such concept of "Jizya" in Hindu texts.

Slavery

Muslim and Hindu societies have practiced slavery many times in history

The practice of slavery in early and late Vedic era of Hinduism is documented. However, some Hindu texts use the term dasa. Some scholars translate this as slave, while other scholars have translated it as servant and religious devotee.[131] [132] Arthashastra text of Hinduism dedicates a chapter to dasa where a financially bankrupt individual may become a servant of another. Arthashastra grants a dasa legal rights, and declares abusing, hurting and raping a dasa as a crime.[133] [134]

Islam's approach to slavery added the idea that freedom was the natural state of affairs for human beings and in line with this it limited the opportunities to enslave people, commended the freeing of slaves and regulated the way slaves were treated:

The Quran and the Hadiths strongly discourage the institution of slaves.[135] [136] Islam, in many cases, encouraged freeing of slaves, acts of benevolence, and expiation of sins. Islam only allows slavery through certain means and many Islamic scholars claim Islam blocked many ways through which people used to own slaves.[137] [138] Most interpretations of the Quran agree that the Quran envisions an ideal society as one in which slavery no longer exists.[139] [140] [141] [142]

Blasphemy

See main article: Islam and blasphemy. Blasphemy against God or Muhammad is a religious crime in Islam.[143] Many verses in the Quran and many Hadiths discuss blasphemy and its punishment.[143] A variety of actions, speech, or behavior can constitute blasphemy in Islam. Some examples include insulting or cursing Allah or the Prophets or drawing offensive cartoons, tearing or burning Islamic holy literature, and creating or using music, paintings, videos, or novels to mock or criticize prophet Muhammad. Punishment can range from imprisonment or flogging to execution.[144] [145]

The concept of "divine blasphemy" or "heresy" does not exist in Hinduism, and ancient Hindu texts make no provisions for blasphemy.[146] [147] [148] Despite this, according to a 2018 annual report from the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom, Hindu nationalist groups have organized campaigns to "Saffronize" India through violence, intimidation, and harassment against non-Hindus, and according to the data, approximately one-third of state governments enforced anti-conversion and/or anti-cow slaughter laws against non-Hindus.[149] [150]

Apostasy

See main article: Apostasy in Islam. Apostasy, defined in Islam as the conscious act by a Muslim of leaving Islam or blaspheming against it, is a religious crime according to some Islamic schools of law.

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed" and is thus more tolerant to apostasy.[32] [34] Some Hindu sects believe that ethical conversion, without force or reward, is completely acceptable.[151] However, the Vashistha Dharmasastra, the Apastamba Dharmasutra, and Yajnavalkya state that a son of an apostate is also considered an apostate.[152] Smr̥ticandrikā lists apostates as a group of people upon touching whom, one should take a bath.[153] Nāradasmṛti and Parasara-samhita state that a wife can remarry if her husband becomes an apostate.[154] The Saint Parashara commented that religious rites are disturbed if an apostate witnesses them.[155] He also comments that those who forgo the Rig Veda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda are "nagna" (naked) or an apostate.[156]

Both religions state that there should be no compulsion in religion.[157] [158]

In popular culture

Music

There have been instances of syncretic cooperation on music with Islamic and Hindu themes. For example, the national poet of Bangladesh, Kazi Nazrul Islam, wrote many Islamic devotional songs for mainstream Bengali folk music.[159] He also explored Hindu devotional music by composing Shyama Sangeet, Durga Vandana, Sarswati Vandana, bhajans and kirtans, often merging Islamic and Hindu values. Nazrul's poetry and songs explored the philosophy of Islam and Hinduism.[160]

See also

Bibliography

Relations
Islam in South Asia
Communal violence
General

Notes and References

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  2. Web site: Precolonial Ethnic Violence:The Case of Hindu-Muslim Conflict in India. Ajay. Verghese. Roberto Stefan. Foa. Boston University. November 5, 2018. April 7, 2023.
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  4. Web site: Kanwal . Fariha . Mughal Rulers' (1526-1707) Religious Tolerance Policy and its Impacts on the Society of Sub-Continent . ANNALS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PERSPECTIVE . February 25, 2024.
  5. Web site: The majestic Mughal Empire: The rise and fall of India's most powerful dynasty . History Skills . February 25, 2024.
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  13. Belkacem. Belmekki. 2014. Muslim Separatism in Post-Revolt India: A British Game of "Divide et Impera"?. Oriente Moderno. 94 . 1 . 113–124 . 10.1163/22138617-12340041 . 44280740 . April 19, 2023.
  14. Book: Tharoor, Shashi . Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India . 2017 . Hurst . 978-1-84904-808-8 . 101 . en.
  15. Web site: Markandey Katju . The truth about Pakistan. . 29 January 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131110103720/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/columns/02-Mar-2013/the-truth-about-pakistan . 10 November 2013 . en. live . Markandey Katju .
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  25. Web site: Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise.
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  28. Book: Knott, Kim . Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction . 24 February 2000 . . . 978-0-19-160645-8 . 3–5 . 27 October 2015 . 29 December 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 . live .
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  30. Book: Klostermaier, Klaus K. . Klaus Klostermaier . 2007 . A Survey of Hinduism . limited . . . 3rd . 978-0-7914-7082-4 . 46–49.
  31. Encyclopedia: Narayanan . Vasudha . Vasudha Narayanan . 2018 . 2009 . Gods, Goddesses, and Divine Powers (overview article) . Basu . Helene . Jacobsen . Knut A. . Knut A. Jacobsen . Malinar . Angelika . Narayanan . Vasudha . Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism . . . 1 . 10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_103 . 978-90-04-17641-6 . 2212-5019.
  32. Book: Lipner, Julius J. . Julius J. Lipner . 2010 . 1998 . Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices . . . Second . 8 . 978-0-415-45677-7 . 698586925 . [...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu..
  33. Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict,, Academic Press, 2008
  34. MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  35. Book: Chakravarti, Sitansu S. . 1991 . Hinduism, a Way of Life . The Hindu Perspective . https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA70 . . . 70–71 . 978-81-208-0899-7 . 925707936 . According to Hinduism, different religions are but alternate ways toward the same spiritual goal. Thus, although spirituality is a necessary quest for human beings, the religion one follows does not have to be the same for everyone. [...] The first Hindu scripture, the Rigveda, dating back to at least 4.000 years, says: "Truth is one, though the wise call it by different names." The Mahabharata, which includes the Gita, is replete with sayings meaning that religious streams, though separate, head toward the same ocean of divinity..
  36. Encyclopedia: Smart . Ninian . . Polytheism . 10 November 2020 . 26 July 1999 . . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20201111205729/https://www.britannica.com/topic/polytheism . 11 November 2020 . 25 April 2021.
  37. Encyclopedia: Leeming . David A. . David Adams Leeming . 2014 . Brahman . Leeming . David A. . David Adams Leeming . Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion . 197 . 2nd . . . 10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052 . 978-1-4614-6087-9 . For Hindus, especially those in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Brahman is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable Absolute. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a monotheistic concept or at least a monistic one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists..
  38. Encyclopedia: Ram-Prasad . Chakravarthi . Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad . 2018 . 2010 . Brahman . Basu . Helene . Jacobsen . Knut A. . Knut A. Jacobsen . Malinar . Angelika . Narayanan . Vasudha . Vasudha Narayanan . Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism . . . 2 . 10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_2050070 . 978-90-04-17893-9 . 2212-5019.
  39. Encyclopedia: Halligan . Fredrica R. . 2014 . Atman . Leeming . David A. . David Adams Leeming . Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion . 134–135 . 2nd . . . 10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_54 . 978-1-4614-6087-9.
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  42. Book: Esposito, John L. . John Esposito . 2016 . 1988 . . Updated 5th . . . 22 . 9780190632151 . 153364691.
  43. David Leeming The Oxford Companion to World Mythology Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0 page 209
  44. Book: Ali. Kecia. Islam: the key concepts. Leaman. Oliver. 2008. Routledge. 978-0-415-39638-7. London; New York. English. 123136939.
  45. N Mohammad sahab (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381–397
  46. Book: Ruthven, Malise. Historical Atlas of Islam. January 2004. Harvard University Press. 978-0-674-01385-8. 14.
  47. Narain, Harsh. Jizyah and the Spread of Islam. Voice of India, 1990.
  48. https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036737#page/n389/mode/2up Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi
  49. Friedmann, Yohanan. "Medieval Muslim views of Indian religions." Journal of the American Oriental Society (1975): 214-221.
  50. The Devil's Deception (Talbis Iblis) By Imam Ibn Al-Jawzi Dar as-Sunnah Publishers
  51. Bahuguna, Rameshwar Prasad. "The Ideological–Political Role Of Brahmans In Later Medieval India." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 72. Indian History Congress, 2011.
  52. Elias, J. J. (2014). Key Themes for the Study of Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oneworld Publications
  53. Zadeh, Travis. "Commanding demons and jinn: The sorcerer in early Islamic thought." No Tapping around Philology: A Festschrift in Honor of Wheeler McIntosh Thackston Jr.’s 70th Birthday (2014): 149.
  54. Abedinifard, Mostafa; Azadibougar, Omid; Vafa, Amirhossein, eds. (2021). Persian Literature as World Literature. Literatures as World Literature. USA: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 40–43. ISBN 978-1501354205, ISBN 9781501354205
  55. Nasir, Mumtaz . 1987 . 'Baiṭhak': Exorcism in Peshawar (Pakistan) . Asian Folklore Studies . 46 . 2 . 159–178, esp. 169 . 10.2307/1178582. 1178582 .
  56. Irani, Ayesha A. The Muhammad Avat= ara: Salvation History, Translation, and the Making of Bengali Islam. Oxford University Press, 2020.
  57. Neal Robinson (2013), Islam: A Concise Introduction, Routledge,, Chapter 7
  58. Book: Gülen, Fethullah . The Messenger of God Muhammad : an analysis of the Prophet's life . 2005 . 978-1-932099-83-6 . 204.
  59. Book: Gibb, H. A. R. . Mohammedanism : an historical survey . Oxford University Press . London New York . 1970 . 0-19-500245-8 . 67–68 .
  60. Encyclopedia: Doniger . Wendy . Stefon . Matt . Wendy Doniger . . Manu-smriti (Hindu law) . 4 February 2015 . 20 July 1998 . . . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20160321210843/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manu-smriti . 21 March 2016 . 25 April 2021.
  61. Book: Larson, Bob . Larson's book of world religions and alternative spirituality . Tyndale House Publishers . 2004 . 978-0-8423-6417-1 . 228.
  62. Book: Michaels, Axel . Axel Michaels . 2004 . Hinduism: Past and present . Princeton University Press.
  63. Book: Bhattacharyya, Ashim . Hindu Dharma : introduction to scriptures and theology . IUniverse . New York Lincoln . 2006 . 978-0-595-38455-6 . 8–14.
  64. Oliver Leaman The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy Bloomsbury Publishing 2015 page 311
  65. Book: Encyclopedia of Global Religion . Juergensmeyer . Mark . Roof . Wade Clark . 2011-10-18 . SAGE Publications . 9781452266565 . 271–272 . en.
  66. Book: Chaturvedi, B. K. . Shiv Purana . 2004 . Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. . 9788171827213 . 124 . en.
  67. Firoz-Ul Haque Islam Under the Microscope: A Condensed Digest for Muslims and Non-Muslims Atlantic Publishers & Dist 2006 page 35
  68. Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic,, pages 23-29
  69. Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press,, page 67
  70. Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass,, pages 2–6
  71. Book: Lochtefeld, James G.. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group. 2002. 978-0823931798. 1. 122.
  72. Mohammed Yamin Impact of Islam on Orissan Culture Readworthy page 56–57
  73. Jean Holm, John Bowker Sacred Place Bloomsbury Publishing 2001 page 112
  74. Clinton Bennett, Charles M. Ramsey South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny A&C Black page 23
  75. Book: Baksh, Kaiyume . Islam and other major world religions . Trafford . 2007 . 978-1-4251-1303-2 . 47–49.
  76. World Faiths, teach yourself – Islam by Ruqaiyyah Maqsood. page 76
  77. Web site: Pradkshna. ISCKON. 13 May 2015.
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  79. Book: Vinayak Bharne and Krupali Krusche . Rediscovering the Hindu temple : the sacred architecture and urbanism of India . Cambridge Scholars . Newcastle upon Tyne, UK . 2012 . 978-1-4438-4137-5 . 101, 79–105.
  80. Book: S.S. Subramuniyaswami . Loving Ganeśa: Hinduism's endearing elephant-faced God . Motilal Banarsidass Publishers . 1998 . 978-81-208-1506-3 . 221.
  81. Web site: Circum-. 2014-03-07. Dictionary.com.
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  83. Web site: OUR DIALOGUE * Kaliki Avtar . Islamic Voice . November 1997 . 21 February 2016 . 3 July 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150703103431/http://www.islamicvoice.com/november.97/OURD.HTM . dead .
  84. Web site: Muhammad in Hindu scriptures. 2014-11-06. Milli Gazette.
  85. Book: Juergensmeyer, Mark . Oxford Handbook of Global Religions . Oxford University Press . Oxford . 2006 . 520 . 978-0-19-513798-9.
  86. Book: Hinduism & Islam: The Common Thread (Sri Sri Ravi Shankar) (2002) [Kindle edition] ]. 2002 . Santa Barbara, CA: Art of Living Foundation USA . 20 . The Prophet Mohammed and His Appearance in Vedic Literature The Vedic text Bhavishya Purana (Parva 3, Khand 3, Adya 3, texts 5-6) predicts the appearance of Mohammed. Therein it states: "An illiterate teacher will appear, Mohammed is his name, and he will give religion to the people of the desert.".
  87. News: rasia . Holy books of Hindus predicted about Mohammed (pbuh): Sri Sri Ravi Shankar . 13 September 2023 . The Siasat Daily – Archive . 13 November 2017.
  88. Malika Mohammada The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India Aakar Books 2007 page 141
  89. Book: Mohammada . Malika . The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India . 2007 . Aakar Books . 978-81-89833-18-3 . 90 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  90. Book: Bīrūnī . Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad . Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030 . 1910 . Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner . 50, 57, 58 . en . CHAPTER V.: ON THE STATE OF THE HOULS, AND THEIR MIGRATIONS THROUGH THE WORLD IN THE METEMPSYCHOSIS. . As the word of confession, "There is no god but God, Muhammad is his prophet," is the shibboleth of Islam, the Trinity that of Christianity, and the institute of the Sabbath that of Judaism, so metempsychosis is the shibboleth of the Hindu religion. Therefore he who does not believe in it does not belong to them, and is not reckoned as one of them. ... Sufi doctrine: The same doctrine is professed by those Süfi who teach that this world is a sleeping soul and yonder world a soul awake, and who at the same time admit that God is immanent în certain places-eg. in heaven in the seat and the throne of God (mentioned in the Koran). But then there are others who admit that God is immanent in the whole world, in animals, trees, and the inanimate world, which they call his universal appearance. To those who hold this view, the entering of the souls into various beings in the course of metempsychosis is of no consequence..
  91. Book: Siddiqui . Ataullah . Waugh . Earle H. . American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16: 3 . International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) . 12 . 27 December 2021 . en.
  92. Book: Laliwala . J. I. . Islamic Philosophy of Religion: Synthesis of Science Religion and Philosophy . 2005 . Sarup & Sons . 978-81-7625-476-2 . 81 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  93. Book: Chamankhah . Leila . The Conceptualization of Guardianship in Iranian Intellectual History (1800–1989): Reading Ibn ʿArabī's Theory of Wilāya in the Shīʿa World . 3 September 2019 . Springer Nature . 978-3-030-22692-3 . 253 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  94. Book: Madzillah-ul-Aqdus . Sultan ul Ashiqeen Hazrat Sakhi Sultan Mohammad Najib-ur-Rehman . Sultan-Bahoo-The Life and Teachings . 11 March 2015 . Sultan ul Faqr Publications . 978-969-9795-18-3 . 49 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  95. Book: Bahoo . Sultan ul Arifeen Hazrat Sakhi Sultan . Risala Roohi Sharif (The Divine Soul): English Translation and Exegesis with Persian Text . 2015 . Sultan ul Faqr Publications . 978-969-9795-28-2 . 58 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  96. Book: Bennett . Clinton . In Search of Muhammad . 1 January 1998 . A&C Black . 978-0-304-70401-9 . 223 . en.
  97. Book: Bennett . Clinton . In Search of Muhammad . 1 January 1998 . A&C Black . 978-0-304-70401-9 . 190 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  98. Book: Nicholls . Ruth J. . Riddell . Peter G. . Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart . 31 July 2020 . Cambridge Scholars Publishing . 978-1-5275-5748-2 . 181 . 7 January 2022 . en.
  99. Book: Ajmi . Ziaur Rahman . হিন্দু, বৌদ্ধ, জৈন, শিখ ধর্মের ইতিহাস (History of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism) . Kasemi . Mahiuddin . 5 June 2021 . Kalantar Prokashoni . 978-984-95932-8-7 . 20, 21–30, 36–39, 101–102, 105–106, 173–174 . Bengali.
  100. Qurʾan 2:173
  101. Book: Riaz, Mian . Halal food production . CRC Press . 2004 . 978-1-58716-029-5.
  102. Web site: Vegetarianism in Hinduism alimentarium . 2022-04-04 . www.alimentarium.org . en.
  103. Book: Jones, Constance . Encyclopedia of Hinduism . New York . 2007 . 978-0-8160-5458-9 . 283.
  104. Encyclopedia: 2014 . Khitān . . . 27 May 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200127165754/https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam . 27 January 2020 . live.
  105. Web site: Islam: Circumcision of boys . 2022-03-10 . BBC . en-GB.
  106. Clarence-Smith. William G.. Islam and Female Genital Cutting in Southeast Asia: The Weight of the Past. Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration. 3. 2. 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20090306050235/http://www.etmu.fi/fjem/pdf/FJEM_2_2008.pdf. 2009-03-06. 14–22.
  107. Race, Caste, and Other Invidious Distinctions in Social Stratification . Race . 13 . 4 . 385–414 . Gerald D. . Berreman . 1972 . University of California, Berkeley . 10.1177/030639687201300401 . 37931747 . 13 May 2015 . 17 January 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160117221644/http://reserves.fcla.edu/rsv/NC/010015586-1.pdf . dead .
  108. Book: Aggarwal, Patrap . Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India . Manohar . 1978 .
  109. Book: Ambedkar, Bhimrao . B.R. Ambedkar . Pakistan or the Partition of India . Thackers Publishers.
  110. http://www.indianexpress.com/story/12109.html Dereserve these myths
  111. Book: Barth, Fredrik . E. R. . Leach . Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan . Cambridge University Press . 1962 . 978-0-521-09664-5.
  112. Web site: January 4, 2019. Racism, Casteism and Islam. The Nation. April 25, 2023.
  113. Web site: Adetunji. Jo. July 6, 2020. Islam's anti-racist message from the 7th century still resonates today. The Conversation. April 25, 2023.
  114. Web site: The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation . corpus.quran.com . 30 December 2019.
  115. Book: Glenn, H . Legal traditions of the world: sustainable diversity in law . Oxford University Press . 2014 . 978-0-19-966983-7.
  116. Book: Emon, Anver . Religious pluralism and Islamic law : Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law. Oxford University Press . 2012 . 978-0-19-966163-3 . 234–236.
  117. Book: Saleh, Fauzan . Modern trends in Islamic theological discourse in 20th century Indonesia: A Critical Survey . Leiden;Boston;Köln : Brill . 2001 . 978-90-04-12305-2.
  118. Joseph, S. E. (2007), Kissing Cousins, Current Anthropology, 48(5), pages 756–764
  119. Book: Ghamidi, Javed Ahmad. Mizan: A Comprehensive Introduction to Islam. Al-Mawrid. Lahore. Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. en.
  120. Zahid . Muhammad . Bittles . Alan H. . Sthanadar . Aftab Alam . September 2014 . Civil Unrest and the Current Profile of Consanguineous Marriage in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan . Journal of Biosocial Science . 46 . 5 . 698–701 . 10.1017/S0021932013000552 . 1469-7599 . 72915638.
  121. Book: Bittles, A. H. . Consanguinity in context . Cambridge University Press . 2012 . 978-0-521-78186-2.
  122. John Louis Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 33–34
  123. Anver M. Emon, Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law, Oxford University Press,, pp. 99–109
  124. Anver M. Emon (26 July 2012). "Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law." Oxford University Press. pp. 99–109. ISBN 978-0199661633.
  125. Book: Walker Arnold, Thomas. Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. 1913. Constable & Robinson Ltd. 60–1. This tax was not imposed on the Christians, as some would have us think, as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith, but was paid by them in common with the other dhimmīs or non-Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army, in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans.. Thomas Walker Arnold. (online) Non-Muslims Paying Jizyah In a State of Humiliation by Bassam Zawadi https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/non_muslims_paying_jizyah_in_a_state_of_humiliation
  126. The jizya Verse (Q. 9:29): Tax Enforcement on Non-Muslims in the First Muslim State. Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 2012 . 10.3366/jqs.2012.0056 . May 6, 2023 . Abdel Haleem . M.A.S. . 14 . 2 . 72–89 .
  127. [Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la|al-Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā]
  128. Mapel, D.R. and Nardin, T., eds. (1999), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives, p. 231. Princeton University Press. . Quote: "Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces. If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor, the jizya was not levied."
  129. Book: R. Cohen, Mark. 1994. Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Jstor. Princeton University Press . 10.2307/j.ctv1f886q5 . j.ctv1f886q5 . 9780691139319 . 242433110 . May 6, 2023.
  130. Web site: Abu-Munshar. Maher Y.. 15 September 2007. Islamic Jerusalem and Its Christians. Bloomsbury Publishing. May 6, 2023. Tauris Academic Studies. ISBN 9781845113537.
  131. A Sharma (September 2005), Journal American Acad Religion, 73(3): 843–870
  132. Kangle R.P. (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra – a critical edition, Part 3, University of Bombay Studies,, p. 186
  133. Shamasastry, Arthashastra of Chanakya, pp. 260–264
  134. B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10–16, 30–71
  135. Book: Lewis, Bernard . What went wrong?: Western impact and Middle Eastern response . Oxford University Press . Oxford New York . 2002 . 0-19-514420-1 . 82–83 .
  136. Web site: BBC – Religions – Islam: Slavery in Islam. BBC. en-GB. 2020-01-16.
  137. Book: Ali, Kecia . Marriage and slavery in early Islam . limited . Harvard University Press . Cambridge, Mass . 2010 . 978-0-674-05059-4. 161–171.
  138. Abbott, N. (1942). "Women and the state in early Islam". Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1(3), pp. 341–368
  140. Book: Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. 6. [The Quran] recommends, without requiring, his liberation by purchase or manumission. The freeing of slaves is recommended both for the expiation of sins (IV:92; V:92; LVIII:3) and as an act of simple benevolence (11: 177; XXIV:33; XC:13)..
  142. Book: Islam: History, Religion, and Politics. Tamara Sonn. 6 October 2015. 18. John Wiley & Sons . 9781118972311. The Quran clearly recognizes that slavery is a source of inequity in society becaise it frequently recommends freeing slaves, along with feeding and clothing the poor as part of living a moral life (90:12-19)...the Quran does not abolish the institution of slavery...slavery was an integral part of the economic system at the time the Quran was revealed; abolition of slavery would have requires an overhaul of the entire socioeconomic system. Therefore, instead of abolishing slavery outright, virtually all interpreters agree that the Quran established an ideal toward which society should: a society in which no one person would be enslaved to another..
  143. Book: Fitzpatrick, Coeli . Muhammad in history, thought, and culture : an encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (Chapter: Blasphemy against the Prophet) . 2014 . 978-1-61069-177-2 . 59–67.
  144. Book: Lawton, David . Blasphemy . registration . University of Pennsylvania Press . Philadelphia . 1993 . 978-0-8122-1503-8.
  145. Book: Marshall, Paul . Silenced : how apostasy and blasphemy codes are choking freedom worldwide . Oxford University Press . 2011 . 978-0-19-981228-8.
  146. Book: Chitkara, Madan . Buddha's: myths & legends . APH Publ.. 2002 . 978-81-7648-189-2 . 227–228.
  147. Book: Naidoo, Thillayvel . Long walk to enlightenment . Pittsburgh, PA . 2010 . 978-1-4349-9808-8 . 141–142.
  148. Book: Pullat, Sury . Destined Encounters . Partridge Pub . 2014 . 978-1-4828-3639-4 . 209.
  149. Annual Report of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom . April 2018 . . 37.
  150. Web site: States Where Cow Slaughter is Banned So Far, and States Where it Isn't . 26 May 2017 .
  151. Web site: Himalayan Academy Publications – How to Become a Hindu. 2021-09-04. himalayanacademy.com.
  152. Book: Banerji, Sures Chandra. A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra. 1999. Abhinav Publications. 978-81-7017-370-0. en.
  153. Book: Banerji, Sures Chandra. A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra. 1999. Abhinav Publications. 978-81-7017-370-0. en.
  154. Book: Banerji, Sures Chandra. A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra. 1999. Abhinav Publications. 978-81-7017-370-0. en.
  155. Book: Kirk, James A.. Stories of the Hindus: An Introduction Through Texts and Interpretation. 1972. Macmillan. 978-0-02-563230-1. en.
  156. Book: Rao, T. A. Gopinatha. Elements of Hindu Iconography. 1985. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 978-81-208-0878-2. en.
  157. Web site: Quran Tafsir Ibn Kathir. qtafsir.com. 20 August 2016.
  158. [Jacques Berque]
  159. Kamrunnessa Azad. 2001. Dharmiya Chetonay Nazrul. Nazrul Institute, Dhaka. 1999. pp. 173–174
  160. Kamrunnessa Azad. 2001. Dharmiya Chetonay Nazrul. Nazrul Institute, Dhaka. 1999. pp. 19–20

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