Irish orthography is the set of conventions used to write Irish. A spelling reform in the mid-20th century led to Irish: [[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]], the modern standard written form used by the Government of Ireland, which regulates both spelling and grammar.[1] The reform removed inter-dialectal silent letters, simplified some letter sequences, and modernised archaic spellings to reflect modern pronunciation, but it also removed letters pronounced in some dialects but not in others.
Irish spelling represents all Irish dialects to a high degree despite their considerable phonological variation, e.g. Irish: crann ("tree") is read pronounced as //kɾˠan̪ˠ// in Mayo and Ulster, pronounced as //kɾˠaːn̪ˠ// in Galway, or pronounced as //kɾˠəun̪ˠ// in Munster. Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, and they sometimes have distinct dialectal spellings to reflect this.[2]
Latin script has been the writing system used to write Irish since the 5th century, when it replaced Ogham, which was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish.[3] Prior to the mid-20th century, Gaelic type was the main typeface used to write Irish; now, it is usually replaced by Roman type . The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above a lenited letter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following in Roman type (e.g. →).[4]
The traditional Irish alphabet (Irish: aibítir) consists of 18 letters: . It does not contain, although they are used in scientific terminology and modern loanwords of foreign origin. occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words (e.g. Irish: vácarnach "to quack" and Irish: vrác "caw") and colloquialisms (e.g. Irish: víog for Irish: bíog "chirp" and Irish: vís for Irish: bís "screw").[5], when not prefixed to a word initial vowel or after a consonant to show lenition, primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g. Irish: hata "hat". is the only letter not listed by Ó Dónaill.
Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (; see below).[6] Accented letters are considered variants of their unaccented equivalent, and they follow their unaccented equivalents in dictionaries (i.e.,,, ...).
English letter names are generally used in both colloquial and formal speech but there are modern Irish letter names (based on the original Latin names), similar to other languages that use a Latin script alphabet. Tree names were historically used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees.
| Letter | Name[7] [8] | Name(IPA) | Tree Name (Irish: [[Bríatharogam]]) | Ogham equivalent | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aa | Irish: á | pronounced as //aː// | Irish: [[ailm]] (pine) | ᚐ | ||
| Bb | Irish: bé | pronounced as //bʲeː// | Irish: [[Beith (letter)|beith]] (birch) | ᚁ | ||
| Cc | Irish: cé | pronounced as //ceː// | Irish: [[Coll (letter)|coll]] (hazel) | ᚉ | ||
| Dd | Irish: dé | pronounced as //dʲeː// | Irish: [[dair]] (oak) | ᚇ | ||
| Ee | Irish: é | pronounced as //eː// | Irish: [[eadhadh]] (poplar) | ᚓ | ||
| Ff | Irish: eif | pronounced as //ɛfʲ// | Irish: [[Fearn (letter)|fearn]] (alder) | ᚃ | ||
| Gg | Irish: gé | pronounced as //ɟeː// | Irish: [[Gort (letter)|gort]] (ivy) | ᚌ | ||
| Hh | Irish: héis | pronounced as //heːʃ// | Irish: [[uath]] (hawthorn) | ᚆ | ||
| Ii | Irish: í | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: [[iodhadh]] (yew) | ᚔ | ||
| Jj | Irish: jé | pronounced as //dʒeː// | pronounced as /[dʒ]/ is a foreign sound. | |||
| Kk | Irish: cá | pronounced as //kaː// | ||||
| Ll | Irish: eil | pronounced as //ɛlʲ// | Irish: [[Luis (letter)|luis]] (rowan) | ᚂ | ||
| Mm | Irish: eim | pronounced as //ɛmʲ// | Irish: [[Muin (letter)|muin]] (vine) | ᚋ | ||
| Nn | Irish: ein | pronounced as //ɛnʲ// | Irish: [[nion]] (ash) | ᚅ | ||
| Oo | Irish: ó | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: [[onn]] (gorse) | ᚑ | ||
| Pp | Irish: pé | pronounced as //pʲeː// | (gooseberry or thorn) | ᚘ | See . | |
| Irish: [[Forfeda|peith]] (dwarf alder) | ᚚ | |||||
| Irish: cú | pronounced as //kuː// | ᚊ | is used to transliterate Irish: [[ceirt]] (apple). | |||
| Rr | Irish: ear | pronounced as //aɾˠ// | Irish: [[Ruis (letter)|ruis]] (elder) | ᚏ | ||
| Ss | Irish: eas | pronounced as //asˠ// | Irish: [[Sail (letter)|sail]] (willow) | ᚄ | ||
| Tt | Irish: té | pronounced as //tʲeː// | Irish: [[Tinne (letter)|tinne]] (holly) | ᚈ | ||
| Uu | Irish: ú | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: [[úr]] (heather) | ᚒ | ||
| Vv | Irish: vé | pronounced as //vʲeː// | ||||
| Ww | Irish: wae | pronounced as //weː// | ||||
| Xx | Irish: eacs | pronounced as //ɛksˠ// | ||||
| Yy | Irish: yé | pronounced as //jeː// | ||||
| Zz | Irish: zae | pronounced as //zˠeː// | ᚎ | is used to transliterate Irish: [[straif]] (blackthorn); pronounced as /[zˠ]/ is a foreign sound. |
In grapheme to phoneme correspondence tables on this page:
See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis and lenition.
Consonants are generally "broad" (velarised) when beside and "slender" (palatalised) when beside .[9] [10] Irish orthography does not allow consonant letters or digraphs to be doubled (except in), in compound words which would result in doubled consonants they are broken up by a hyphen (see below).
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | M | ||||||
| b | broad | pronounced as //bˠ// | Irish: bain pronounced as //bˠanʲ// "take" (imper.), Irish: scuab pronounced as //sˠkuəbˠ// "broom" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //bʲ// | Irish: béal pronounced as //bʲeːlˠ// "mouth", Irish: cnáib pronounced as //knˠaːbʲ// "hemp" | |||||
| bh | broad | pronounced as //w// | Irish: bhain pronounced as //wanʲ// "took", Irish: ábhar pronounced as //ˈaːwəɾˠ// "material", Irish: dubhaigh pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠʊwiː// "blacken" (imper.), Irish: taobh pronounced as //t̪ˠiːw// "side", Irish: dubh pronounced as //d̪ˠʊw// "black" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //vʲ// | Irish: bhéal pronounced as //vʲeːlˠ// "mouth" (lenited), Irish: cuibhreann pronounced as //ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ// "common table", Irish: aibhneacha pronounced as //ˈavʲnʲəxə// "rivers", Irish: sibh pronounced as //ʃɪvʲ// "you" (pl.) | |||||
| See below for | |||||||
| bhf (eclipsis of ) | broad | pronounced as //w// | Irish: bhfuinneog pronounced as //ˈwɪn̠ʲoːɡ// "window" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //vʲ// | Irish: bhfíon pronounced as //vʲiːnˠ// "wine" (eclipsed) | |||||
| bp (eclipsis of) | broad | pronounced as //bˠ// | Irish: bpoll pronounced as //bˠoːl̪ˠ// "hole" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //bʲ// | Irish: bpríosún pronounced as //ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ// "prison" (eclipsed) | |||||
| c | broad | pronounced as //k// | Irish: cáis pronounced as //kaːʃ// "cheese", Irish: mac pronounced as //mˠak// "son" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //c// | Irish: ceist pronounced as //cɛʃtʲ// "question", Irish: mic pronounced as //mʲɪc// "sons" | |||||
| ch | broad | pronounced as //x// | Irish: cháis pronounced as //xaːʃ// "cheese" (lenited), Irish: taoiseach pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx// "chieftain, Prime Minister of Ireland" | ||||
| slender | before | Irish: boichte pronounced as //bˠɔxtʲə// "poorer" | |||||
| usually | pronounced as //ç// | Irish: cheist pronounced as //çɛʃtʲ// "question" (lenited), Irish: deich pronounced as //dʲɛç// "ten", Irish: oíche pronounced as //ˈiːçə// "night" | |||||
| d | broad | pronounced as //d̪ˠ// | Irish: dorn pronounced as //d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ// "fist", Irish: nead pronounced as //n̠ʲad̪ˠ// "nest" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //dʲ// | Irish: dearg pronounced as //dʲaɾˠəɡ// "red", Irish: cuid pronounced as //kɪdʲ// "part" | |||||
| dh | broad | initially | pronounced as //ɣ// | Irish: dhorn pronounced as //ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ// "fist" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //∅// | Irish: ádh pronounced as //aː// "luck" | |||||
| slender | usually | pronounced as //j// | Irish: dhearg pronounced as //ˈjaɾˠəɡ// "red" (lenited), Irish: fáidh pronounced as //fˠaːj// "prophet" | ||||
| finally | pronounced as //j// | pronounced as //∅// | pronounced as //ɟ// | ||||
| See below for . See Exceptions in verb forms for - at the end of verbs endings. | |||||||
| dt | broad | eclipsis of | pronounced as //d̪ˠ// | Irish: dtaisce pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠaʃcə// "treasure" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //t̪ˠ// | Irish: greadta pronounced as //ˈɟɾʲat̪ˠə// "beaten" | |||||
| slender | eclipsis of | pronounced as //dʲ// | Irish: dtír pronounced as //dʲiːɾʲ// "country" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //tʲ// | Irish: goidte pronounced as //ˈɡɛtʲə// "stolen" | |||||
| f | broad | pronounced as //fˠ// | Irish: fós pronounced as //fˠoːsˠ// "still", Irish: graf pronounced as //ɡɾˠafˠ// "graph" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //fʲ// | Irish: fíon pronounced as //fʲiːnˠ// "wine", Irish: stuif pronounced as //sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ// "stuff" | |||||
| See Exceptions in verb forms for -- in future and conditional personal verb endings. | |||||||
| fh | pronounced as //∅// | Irish: fhuinneog pronounced as //ˈɪn̠ʲoːɡ// "window" (lenited), Irish: fhíon pronounced as //iːnˠ// "wine" (lenited) | |||||
| g | broad | pronounced as //ɡ// | Irish: gasúr pronounced as //ˈɡasˠuːɾˠ// "boy", Irish: bog pronounced as //bˠɔɡ// "soft" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //ɟ// | Irish: geata pronounced as //ˈɟat̪ˠə// "gate", Irish: carraig pronounced as //ˈkaɾˠəɟ// "rock" | |||||
| gc (eclipsis of ) | broad | pronounced as //ɡ// | Irish: gcáis pronounced as //ɡaːʃ// "cheese" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //ɟ// | Irish: gceist pronounced as //ɟɛʃtʲ// "question" (eclipsed) | |||||
| gh | broad | initially | pronounced as //ɣ// | Irish: ghasúr pronounced as //ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ// "boy" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //∅// | Irish: Eoghan pronounced as //ˈoːənˠ// (male name) | |||||
| slender | usually | pronounced as //j// | Irish: gheata pronounced as //ˈjat̪ˠə// "gate" (lenited), Irish: dóigh pronounced as //d̪ˠoːj// "way, manner" | ||||
| finally | pronounced as //j// | pronounced as //∅// | pronounced as //ɟ// | ||||
| See below for . See Exceptions in verb forms for at the end of verbs. | |||||||
| h | pronounced as //h// | Irish: hata pronounced as //ˈhat̪ˠə// "hat", Irish: na héisc pronounced as //nə heːʃc// "the fish" (plural) | |||||
| j (loan consonant) | pronounced as //dʒ// | Irish: jab pronounced as //ˈdʒabˠ// "job", Irish: jíp pronounced as //dʒiːpʲ// "jeep" | |||||
| l | broad | initially | usually | pronounced as //l̪ˠ// | Irish: luí pronounced as //l̪ˠiː// "lying (down)" | ||
| lenited | pronounced as //lˠ// | Irish: lann pronounced as //lˠaːn̪ˠ// "blade" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //lˠ// or pronounced as //l̪ˠ// | Irish: béal pronounced as //bʲeːlˠ// "mouth" | |||||
| slender | initially | usually | pronounced as //l̠ʲ// | Irish: leisciúil pronounced as //ˈl̠ʲɛʃcuːlʲ// "lazy" | |||
| lenited | pronounced as //lʲ// | Irish: leanbh pronounced as //ˈlʲanˠəw// "baby" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //lʲ// or pronounced as //l̠ʲ// | Irish: siúil pronounced as //ˈʃuːlʲ// "walk" | |||||
| ll | broad | pronounced as //l̪ˠ// | poll pronounced as //poːl̪ˠ// "hole" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //l̠ʲ// | coill pronounced as //kəil̠ʲ// "woods" | |||||
| m | broad | pronounced as //mˠ// | Irish: mór pronounced as //mˠoːɾˠ// "big", Irish: am pronounced as //aːmˠ// "time" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //mʲ// | Irish: milis pronounced as //ˈmʲɪlʲəʃ// "sweet", Irish: im pronounced as //iːmʲ// "butter" | |||||
| mb (eclipsis of) | broad | pronounced as //mˠ// | Irish: mbaineann pronounced as //ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ// "takes" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //mʲ// | Irish: mbéal pronounced as //mʲeːlˠ// "mouth" (eclipsed) | |||||
| mh | broad | pronounced as //w// | Irish: mhór pronounced as //woːɾˠ// "big" (lenited), Irish: lámha pronounced as //ˈl̪ˠaːwə// "hands", Irish: léamh pronounced as //l̠ʲeːw// "reading" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //vʲ// | Irish: mhilis pronounced as //ˈvʲɪlʲəʃ// "sweet" (lenited), Irish: uimhir pronounced as //ˈɪvʲəɾʲ// "number", Irish: nimh pronounced as //n̠ʲɪvʲ// "poison" | |||||
| See below for . | |||||||
| n | broad | initially | usually | pronounced as //n̪ˠ// | Irish: naoi pronounced as //n̪ˠiː// "nine" | ||
| lenited | pronounced as //nˠ// | Irish: nótaí pronounced as //nˠoːt̪ˠiː// "notes" (lenited) | |||||
| after non initial cons. | pronounced as //ɾˠ// | pronounced as //nˠ// | pronounced as //mˠɾˠaː// "women", pronounced as //ˈkɾˠapʲə// "press" | ||||
| usually | pronounced as //nˠ// or pronounced as //n̪ˠ// | Irish: bean pronounced as //bʲanˠ// "woman" | |||||
| slender | initially | usually | pronounced as //n̠ʲ// | Irish: neart pronounced as //n̠ʲaɾˠt̪ˠ// "strength" | |||
| lenited | pronounced as //nʲ// | Irish: neart pronounced as //nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ// "strength" (lenited) | |||||
| after non initial cons. | pronounced as //ɾʲ// | pronounced as //nʲ// | "sex", pronounced as //ˈcɾʲiːpˠəɾʲə// "skinflint" | ||||
| usually | pronounced as //nʲ// or pronounced as //n̠ʲ// | Irish: Eoin pronounced as //oːnʲ// (male name) | |||||
| nc | broad | pronounced as //ŋk// | Irish: ancaire pronounced as //ˈaŋkəɾʲə// "anchor" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //ɲc// | Irish: rinc pronounced as //ɾˠɪɲc// "dance" | |||||
| nd (eclipsis of ) | broad | pronounced as //n̪ˠ// | Irish: ndorn pronounced as //n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ// "fist" (eclipsed) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //n̠ʲ// | Irish: ndearg pronounced as //ˈn̠ʲaɾˠəɡ// "red" (eclipsed) | |||||
| ng | broad | eclipsis of | pronounced as //ŋ// | Irish: ngasúr pronounced as //ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ// "boy" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //ŋ(g)// | Irish: long pronounced as //l̪ˠuːŋɡ// "ship", Irish: teanga pronounced as //ˈtʲaŋɡə// "tongue" | |||||
| slender | eclipsis of | pronounced as //ɲ// | Irish: ngeata pronounced as //ˈɲat̪ˠə// "gate" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | pronounced as //ɲ(ɟ)// | Irish: cuing pronounced as //kɪɲɟ// "yoke", Irish: ingear pronounced as //ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ// "vertical" | |||||
| nn | broad | pronounced as //n̪ˠ// | Irish: ceann pronounced as //caːn̪ˠ// "head" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //n̠ʲ// | Irish: tinneas pronounced as //ˈtʲɪn̠ʲəsˠ// "illness" | |||||
| p | broad | pronounced as //pˠ// | Irish: poll pronounced as //pˠoːl̪ˠ// "hole", Irish: stop pronounced as //sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ// "stop" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //pʲ// | Irish: príosún pronounced as //ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ// "prison", Irish: truip pronounced as //t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ// "trip" | |||||
| ph | broad | pronounced as //fˠ// | Irish: pholl pronounced as //fˠoːl̪ˠ// "hole" (lenited) | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //fʲ// | Irish: phríosún pronounced as //ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ// "prison" (lenited) | |||||
| r | broad | pronounced as //ɾˠ// | Irish: ruán pronounced as //ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ// "buckwheat", Irish: cumhra pronounced as //kuːɾˠə// "fragrant", Irish: fuar pronounced as //fˠuəɾˠ// "cold" | ||||
| slender | initially | Irish: rí pronounced as //ɾˠiː// "king" | |||||
| before | Irish: airde pronounced as //aːɾˠdʲə// "height", Irish: duirling pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠl̠ʲən̠ʲ// "stony beach", Irish: coirnéal pronounced as //ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ// "corner", Irish: cuairt pronounced as //kuəɾˠtʲ// "visit", Irish: oirthear pronounced as //ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ// "east" | ||||||
| after | Irish: sreang pronounced as //sˠɾˠaŋɡ// "string" | ||||||
| usually | pronounced as //ɾʲ// | Irish: tirim pronounced as //ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ// "dry", Irish: fuair pronounced as //fˠuəɾʲ// "got" | |||||
| rr | pronounced as //ɾˠ// | carr pronounced as //kaːɾˠ// "car, cart" | |||||
| s | broad | pronounced as //sˠ// | Irish: Sasana pronounced as //ˈsˠasˠənˠə// "England", Irish: tús pronounced as //t̪ˠuːsˠ// "beginning" | ||||
| slender | initially before | Irish: sféar pronounced as //sˠfʲeːɾˠ// "sphere", Irish: speal pronounced as //sˠpʲalˠ// "scythe", Irish: sméar pronounced as //sˠmʲeːɾˠ// "blackberry", Irish: sreang pronounced as //sˠɾˠaŋɡ// "string" | |||||
| usually | pronounced as //ʃ// | Irish: sean pronounced as //ʃanˠ// "old", Irish: cáis pronounced as //kaːʃ// "cheese" | |||||
| sh | pronounced as //h// | Irish: Shasana pronounced as //ˈhasˠənˠə// "England" (lenited), Irish: shiúil pronounced as //huːlʲ// "walked" | |||||
| t | broad | pronounced as //t̪ˠ// | Irish: taisce pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠaʃcə// "treasure", Irish: ceart pronounced as //caɾˠt̪ˠ// "correct" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //tʲ// | Irish: tír pronounced as //tʲiːɾʲ// "country", Irish: beirt pronounced as //bʲɛɾˠtʲ// "two (people)" | |||||
| th | usually | pronounced as //h// | Irish: thuaidh pronounced as //huə// "north", Irish: thíos pronounced as //hiːsˠ// "below", Irish: athair pronounced as //ˈahəɾʲ// "father", Irish: coinnithe pronounced as //ˈkɪn̠ʲɪhə// "kept", Irish: ith pronounced as //ɪh// "eat", Irish: foghlamtha pronounced as //ˈfˠoːlˠəmˠhə// "learned", Irish: ruaigthe pronounced as //ˈɾˠuəcə// "chased", Irish: scuabtha pronounced as //ˈsˠkuəpˠə// "swept" | ||||
| finally after a long vowel or diphthong | pronounced as //∅// | Irish: bláth pronounced as //bˠlˠaː// "blossom", Irish: cliath pronounced as //clʲiə// "harrow" | |||||
| ts (mutation of - after "the") | broad | pronounced as //t̪ˠ// | Irish: an tsolais pronounced as //ə(n̪ˠ) ˈt̪ˠɔlˠəʃ// "the light (gen.)" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //tʲ// | Irish: an tSín pronounced as //ə(nʲ) tʲiːnʲ// "China" | |||||
| v (loan consonant) | broad | pronounced as //w// | Irish: vóta pronounced as //ˈwoːt̪ˠə// "vote" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //vʲ// | Irish: veidhlín pronounced as //ˈvʲəilʲiːnʲ// "violin" | |||||
| z (loan consonant) | broad | pronounced as //zˠ// | Irish: zú pronounced as //zˠuː// "zoo" | ||||
| slender | pronounced as //ʒ// | Irish: Zen pronounced as //ʒɛnʲ// "Zen" | |||||
Vowel sequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "Irish: caol le caol agus leathan le leathan" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (or consonant cluster) must be both slender or both broad, to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender.An apparent exception is, which is followed by a broad consonant despite the .[11]
The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||||
| a | stressed | usually | pronounced as //a// | Irish: fan pronounced as //fˠanˠ// "stay" (imper.) | |||
| before | pronounced as //aː// | Irish: garda pronounced as //ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə// "policeman", Irish: tarlú pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː// "happening", Irish: carnán pronounced as //ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ// "(small) heap", Irish: barr pronounced as //bˠaːɾˠ// "tip, point" | |||||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //a// | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: mall pronounced as //mˠaːl̪ˠ// "slow, late", Irish: ann pronounced as //aːn̪ˠ// "there", Irish: am pronounced as //aːmˠ// "time" | |||
| unstressed | usually | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: ólann pronounced as //ˈoːlˠən̪ˠ// "drink" (present), Irish: mála pronounced as //ˈmˠaːlˠə// "bag" | ||||
| before | pronounced as //a// | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: Domhnach pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx// "Sunday" | ||||
| á, ái | pronounced as //aː// | Irish: bán pronounced as //bˠaːnˠ// "white", Irish: dáil pronounced as //d̪ˠaːlʲ// "assembly", Irish: gabháil pronounced as //ˈɡawaːlʲ// "taking" | |||||
| ae, aei | pronounced as //eː// | Irish: Gaelach pronounced as //ˈɡeːlˠəx// "Gaelic", Irish: Gaeilge pronounced as //ˈɡeːlʲɟə// "Irish (language)" | |||||
| ai | stressed | usually | pronounced as //a// | Irish: baile pronounced as //ˈbˠalʲə// "home" | |||
| before | pronounced as //aː// | Irish: airne pronounced as //aːɾˠn̠ʲə// "sloe", Irish: airde pronounced as //aːɾˠdʲə// "height" | |||||
| before syllable-final | pronounced as //a// | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: caillte pronounced as //ˈkaːl̠ʲtʲə// "lost, ruined", Irish: crainn pronounced as //kɾˠaːn̠ʲ// "trees" | |||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: eolais pronounced as //ˈoːlˠəʃ// "knowledge" (genitive) | |||||
| aí, aío | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: maígh pronounced as //mˠiːj// "claim" (imper.), Irish: gutaí pronounced as //ˈɡʊt̪ˠiː// "vowels", Irish: naíonán pronounced as //ˈn̪ˠiːnˠaːnˠ// "infant", Irish: beannaíonn pronounced as //ˈbʲan̪ˠiːnˠ// "blesses" | |||||
| ao | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //eː// | Irish: saol pronounced as //sˠiːlˠ// "life" | ||||
| aoi | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: gaois pronounced as //ɡiːʃ// "shrewdness", Irish: naoi pronounced as //ˈn̪ˠiː// "nine" | |||||
| e, ei | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ɛ// | Irish: te pronounced as //tʲɛ// "hot", Irish: ceist pronounced as //cɛʃtʲ// "question" | |||
| before | pronounced as //eː// | Irish: eirleach pronounced as //ˈeːɾˠl̠ʲəx// "destruction", Irish: ceirnín pronounced as //ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ// "record album", Irish: ceird pronounced as //ceːɾˠdʲ// "trade, craft" | |||||
| before | pronounced as //ɪ// | Irish: creimeadh pronounced as //ˈcɾʲɪmʲə// "corrosion, erosion", Irish: sceimhle pronounced as //ˈʃcɪvʲlʲə// "eroded", Irish: seinm pronounced as //ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ// "playing" | |||||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //ɪ// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: greim pronounced as //ɟɾʲiːmʲ// "grip" | |||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: míle pronounced as //ˈmʲiːlʲə// "thousand" | |||||
| é, éa, éi | pronounced as //eː// | Irish: sé pronounced as //ʃeː// "he", Irish: déanamh pronounced as //ˈdʲeːnˠəw// "doing", Irish: buidéal pronounced as //ˈbˠɪdʲeːlˠ// "bottle", Irish: scéimh pronounced as //ʃceːvʲ// "beauty", Irish: páipéir pronounced as //ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ// "papers" | |||||
| ea, eai | stressed | usually | pronounced as //a// | Irish: bean pronounced as //bʲanˠ// "woman", Irish: veain pronounced as //vʲanʲ// "van" | |||
| before | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //caːɾˠd̪ˠiː// "craftsman", Irish: bearna pronounced as //ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə// "gap", pronounced as //fʲaːɾˠ// "better" | |||||
| before syllable-final | pronounced as //a// | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: feall pronounced as //fʲaːl̪ˠ// "treachery", Irish: feanntach pronounced as //ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx// "severe" | |||
| unstressed | usually | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: seisean pronounced as //ˈʃɛʃənˠ// "he" (emphatic) | ||||
| before | pronounced as //a// | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: taoiseach pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx// "chieftain" | ||||
| eá, eái | pronounced as //aː// | Irish: Seán pronounced as //ʃaːnˠ// "John", Irish: caisleán pronounced as //ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnˠ// "castle", Irish: meáin pronounced as //mʲaːnʲ// "middles", Irish: caisleáin pronounced as //ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnʲ// "castles" | |||||
| eo, eoi | usually | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: ceol pronounced as //coːlˠ// "music", Irish: dreoilín pronounced as //ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ// "wren" | ||||
| in four words | pronounced as //ɔ// | anseo pronounced as //ənʲˈʃɔ// "here", deoch pronounced as //dʲɔx// "drink", eochair pronounced as //ˈɔxəɾʲ// "key", seo pronounced as //ˈʃɔ// "this" | |||||
| i | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ɪ// | Irish: pic pronounced as //pʲɪc// "pitch", Irish: ifreann pronounced as //ˈɪfʲɾʲən̪ˠ// "hell" | |||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //ɪ// | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: cill pronounced as //ciːl̠ʲ// "church", Irish: cinnte pronounced as //ˈciːn̠ʲtʲə// "sure", Irish: im pronounced as //iːmʲ// "butter" | ||||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: faoistin pronounced as //ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ// "confession" | |||||
| í, ío | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: gnímh pronounced as //ɟnʲiːvʲ// "act, deed" (gen.), Irish: cailín pronounced as //ˈkalʲiːnʲ// "girl", Irish: síol pronounced as //ʃiːlˠ// "seed" | |||||
| ia, iai | pronounced as //iə// | Irish: Diarmaid pronounced as //dʲiərmədʲ// "Dermot", Irish: bliain pronounced as //bʲlʲiənʲ// "year" | |||||
| iá, iái | pronounced as //iː.aː// | Irish: bián pronounced as //ˈbʲiːaːnˠ// "size", Irish: liáin pronounced as //ˈl̠ʲiːaːnʲ// "trowel" (gen.) | |||||
| io | before | pronounced as //ɪ// | Irish: fios pronounced as //fʲɪsˠ// "knowledge", Irish: bior pronounced as //bʲɪɾˠ// "spit, spike", Irish: cion pronounced as //cɪnˠ// "affection", Irish: giota pronounced as //ˈɟɪt̪ˠə// "bit, piece", Irish: giodam pronounced as //ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ// "restlessness", Irish: friotháil pronounced as //ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ// "attention" | ||||
| before | pronounced as //ɪ// | pronounced as //ʊ// | Irish: siopa pronounced as //ˈʃʊpˠə// "shop", Irish: liom pronounced as //lʲʊmˠ// "with me", Irish: tiocfaidh pronounced as //ˈtʲʊkiː// "will come", Irish: Siobhán pronounced as //ˈʃʊwaːnˠ// "Joan", Irish: briogáid pronounced as //ˈbʲɾʲʊɡaːdʲ// "brigade", Irish: tiomáin pronounced as //ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ// "drive" (imper.), Irish: ionga pronounced as //ˈʊŋɡə// "(finger)nail" | ||||
| before syllable-final | pronounced as //ʊ// | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: fionn pronounced as //fʲʊn̪ˠ// "light-haired" | ||||
| ió, iói | pronounced as //iː.oː// | Irish: sióg pronounced as //ˈʃiːoːɡ// "fairy", Irish: pióg pronounced as //ˈpʲiːoːɡ// "pie", Irish: grióir pronounced as //ˈɟɾʲiːoːɾʲ// "weakling" | |||||
| iu | pronounced as //ʊ// | Irish: fliuch pronounced as //fʲlʲʊx// "wet" | |||||
| iú, iúi | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: siúl pronounced as //ʃuːlˠ// "walk", Irish: bailiú pronounced as //ˈbˠalʲuː// "gathering", Irish: ciúin pronounced as //cuːnʲ// "quiet", Irish: inniúil pronounced as //ˈɪn̠ʲuːlʲ// "able, fit" | |||||
| o | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ɔ// | Irish: post pronounced as //pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ// "post" | |||
| before | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: bord pronounced as //bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ// "table", Irish: orlach pronounced as //ˈoːɾˠl̪ˠəx// "inch" | |||||
| before | pronounced as //ɔ// | pronounced as //ʊ// | Irish: conradh pronounced as //ˈkʊnˠɾˠə// "agreement", Irish: cromóg pronounced as //ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːɡ// "hooked nose" | ||||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: fonn pronounced as //fˠuːn̪ˠ// "desire, inclination", Irish: trom pronounced as //t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ// "heavy", Irish: long pronounced as //l̪ˠuːŋɡ// "ship" | ||||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: mo pronounced as //mˠə// "my", Irish: cothrom pronounced as //ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ// "equal" | |||||
| ó, ói | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: póg pronounced as //pˠoːɡ// "kiss", Irish: armónach pronounced as //ˈaɾˠəmˠoːnəx// "harmonic", Irish: móin pronounced as //mˠoːnʲ// "sod, turf", Irish: bádóir pronounced as //ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːɾʲ// "boatman" | |||||
| oi | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ɛ// | Irish: scoil pronounced as //sˠkɛlʲ// "school", Irish: troid pronounced as //t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ// "fight" (imper.), Irish: toitín pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ// "cigarette", Irish: oibre pronounced as //ˈɛbʲɾʲə// "work" (gen.), Irish: thoir pronounced as //hɛɾʲ// "in the east", Irish: cloiche pronounced as //ˈklˠɛçə// "stone" (gen.) | |||
| before | pronounced as //ɔ// | Irish: cois pronounced as //kɔʃ// "foot" (dat.), Irish: cloisfidh pronounced as //ˈkl̪ˠɔʃiː// "will hear", Irish: boicht pronounced as //bˠɔxtʲ// "poor" (gen. sg. masc.), Irish: doirse pronounced as //ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə// "doors", Irish: goirt pronounced as //ɡɔɾˠtʲ// "salty", Irish: oirthear pronounced as //ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ// "east" | |||||
| before | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: coirnéal pronounced as //ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ// "corner", Irish: oird pronounced as //oːɾˠdʲ// "sledgehammers" | |||||
| next to | pronounced as //ɪ// | Irish: anois pronounced as //əˈnˠɪʃ// "now", Irish: gloine pronounced as //ˈɡlˠɪnʲə// "glass", Irish: cnoic pronounced as //knˠɪc// "hills", Irish: roimh pronounced as //ɾˠɪvʲ// "before", Irish: coimeád pronounced as //ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ// "keep" (imper.), Irish: loinge pronounced as //ˈl̪ˠɪɲɟə// "ship" (gen.) | |||||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //ɪ// | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: foinn pronounced as //fˠiːnʲ// "wish" (gen.), Irish: droim pronounced as //d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ// "back" | ||||
| before syllable-final | pronounced as //əi// | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: goill pronounced as //gəil̠ʲ// "grieve, hurt", Irish: coillte pronounced as //ˈkəil̠ʲtʲə// "forests" | ||||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: éadroime pronounced as //eːdˠɾˠəmʲə// "lightness" | |||||
| oí, oío | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: croíleacán pronounced as //ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːnˠ// "core", Irish: croíonna pronounced as //ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə// "hearts" | |||||
| u | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ʊ// | Irish: dubh pronounced as //d̪ˠʊw// "black" | |||
| before | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: burla pronounced as //ˈbˠuːɾˠl̪ˠə// "bundle", Irish: murnán pronounced as //ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ// "ankle" | |||||
| in English loanwords | pronounced as //ɔ// or pronounced as //ʊ// | Irish: bus pronounced as //bˠɔsˠ//, Irish: club pronounced as //klˠɔbˠ// | |||||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: agus pronounced as //ˈaɡəsˠ// "and" | |||||
| ú, úi | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: tús pronounced as //t̪ˠuːsˠ// "beginning", Irish: súil pronounced as //suːlʲ// "eye", Irish: cosúil pronounced as //ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ// "like, resembling" | |||||
| ua, uai | pronounced as //uə// | Irish: fuar pronounced as //fˠuəɾˠ// "cold", Irish: fuair pronounced as //fˠuəɾʲ// "got" | |||||
| uá, uái | pronounced as //uː.aː// | Irish: ruán pronounced as //ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ// "buckwheat", Irish: duán pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠuːaːnˠ// "kidney, fishhook", Irish: fuáil pronounced as //ˈfˠuːaːlʲ// "sewing, stitching" | |||||
| ui | stressed | usually | pronounced as //ɪ// | Irish: duine pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə// "person" | |||
| before | pronounced as //ɪ// | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: duirling pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ// "stony beach", Irish: tuirne pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠn̠ʲə// "spinning wheel" | ||||
| before syllable-final and - | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːl̠ʲtʲənˠəx/ "deserving", Irish: puinn /pˠiːn̠ʲ/ "much", Irish: suim /sˠiːmʲ/ "interest" | |||||
| unstressed | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: aguisín pronounced as //ˈaɡəʃiːnʲ// "addition" | |||||
| uí, uío | pronounced as //iː// | Irish: buígh pronounced as //bˠiːj// "turn yellow" (imper.), Irish: buíon pronounced as //bˠiːnˠ// "band, troop" | |||||
| uó, uói | pronounced as //uː.oː// | Irish: cruóg pronounced as //ˈkɾˠuːoːɡ// "urgent need", Irish: luóige pronounced as //ˈl̪ˠuːoːɟə// "pollock" (gen.) | |||||
When followed by, a short vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens. For, see - in exceptions in verb forms.
| Letters | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||
| (e)abh, (e)abha, (e)abhai | pronounced as //oː// or pronounced as //əu// | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: Feabhra pronounced as //ˈfʲəuɾˠə// "February", Irish: leabhair pronounced as //l̠ʲəuɾʲ// "books", Irish: sabhall pronounced as //sˠəul̪ˠ// "barn" | |||
| (e)adh, (e)adha, (e)adhai, (e)agh, (e)agha, (e)aghai | stressed | pronounced as //eː// or pronounced as //əi// | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: meadhg pronounced as //mʲəiɡ// "whey", Irish: adharc pronounced as //əiɾˠk// "horn", Irish: adhairt pronounced as //əiɾˠtʲ// "pillow", Irish: saghsanna pronounced as //ˈsˠəisˠən̪ˠə// "sorts, kinds", Irish: deagha pronounced as //d̪ˠəi// "centaury", Irish: aghaidh pronounced as //əij// "face" | ||
| unstressed | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: margadh pronounced as //ˈmˠaɾˠəɡə// "market", Irish: briseadh pronounced as //ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə// "breaking" | |||
| aidh, aidhe, aigh, aighe, aighea | stressed | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: aidhleann pronounced as //ˈəilʲən̪ˠ// "rack", Irish: aidhe pronounced as //əi// "aye!", Irish: aighneas pronounced as //əinʲəsˠ// "argument, discussion", Irish: aighe pronounced as //əi// "cow, ox" (gen.), Irish: caighean pronounced as //kəinˠ// "cage" | |||
| unstressed | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ə// | pronounced as //əɟ// | cleachtaidh pronounced as //ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː// "practice" (gen.), Irish: bacaigh pronounced as //ˈbˠakiː// "beggar" (gen.) | ||
| (e)amh, (e)amha, (e)amhai | stressed | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: ramhraigh pronounced as //ˈɾˠəuɾˠiː// "fattened", Irish: amhantar pronounced as //ˈəun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ// "venture", Irish: [[Samhain]] pronounced as //sˠəunʲ// "November" | |||
| unstressed | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //ə(w)// | pronounced as //əw// | pronounced as //ˈakəd̪ˠəw// "academy", pronounced as //ˈcɾʲɛdʲəw// "belief, religion" | ||
| eidh, eidhea, eidhi | pronounced as //eː// | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: feidhm pronounced as //fʲəimʲ// "function", Irish: eidheann pronounced as //əin̪ˠ// "ivy", Irish: meidhir pronounced as //mʲəiɾʲ// "mirth" | |||
| eigh, eighea, eighi | Irish: feighlí pronounced as //ˈfʲəilʲiː// "overseer", Irish: leigheas pronounced as //l̠ʲəisˠ// "healing", Irish: feighil pronounced as //fʲəilʲ// "vigilance" | |||||
| idh, (u)igh | stressed | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ɪɟ// | Irish: ligh pronounced as //l̠ʲiː// "sit", Irish: guigh pronounced as //giː// "pray" | ||
| unstressed | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ə// | pronounced as //əɟ// | Irish: tuillidh pronounced as //ˈt̪ˠɪl̠ʲiː// "addition" (gen.), Irish: coiligh pronounced as //ˈkɛlʲiː// "rooster" (gen.) | ||
| oidh, oidhea, oidhi | pronounced as //əi// | Irish: oidhre pronounced as //əiɾʲə// "heir", Irish: oidheanna pronounced as //əin̪ˠə// "tragedies" | ||||
| oigh, oighea, oighi | Irish: oighreach pronounced as //ˈəiɾʲəx// "glacial", Irish: oigheann pronounced as //əin̪ˠ// "oven", Irish: loighic pronounced as //l̪ˠəic// "logic" | |||||
| (e)obh, (e)obha, (e)obhai | pronounced as //oː// | pronounced as //əu// | Irish: lobhra pronounced as //ˈl̪ˠəuɾˠə// "leprosy", Irish: lobhar pronounced as //l̪ˠəuɾˠ// "leper", Irish: lobhair pronounced as //l̪ˠəuɾʲ// "lepers" | |||
| (e)odh, (e)odha, (e)odhai | Irish: bodhrán pronounced as //ˈbˠəuɾˠaːnˠ// "deaf person", Irish: bodhar pronounced as //bˠəuɾˠ// "deaf", Irish: bodhair pronounced as //bˠəuɾʲ// "deaf people" | |||||
| (e)ogh, (e)ogha, (e)oghai | Irish: doghra pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠəuɾˠə// "misery", Irish: bogha pronounced as //bˠəu// "bow", Irish: broghais pronounced as //bˠɾˠəuʃ// "afterbirth (of animal)" | |||||
| (e)omh, (e)omha, (e)omhai | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: Domhnach pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx// "Sunday", Irish: comhar pronounced as //koːɾˠ// "partnership", Irish: domhain pronounced as //d̪ˠoːnʲ// "deep" | ||||
| (i)ubh | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //ʊ(w)// | pronounced as //ʊw// | Irish: dubh pronounced as //d̪ˠʊw// "black", Irish: tiubh pronounced as //tʲʊw// "dense" | ||
| (i)umh, (i)umha, (i)umhai | pronounced as //uː// | Irish: cumhra pronounced as //ˈkuːɾˠə// "fragrant", Irish: Mumhan pronounced as //ˈmˠuːnˠ// "Munster" (gen.), Irish: ciumhais pronounced as //cuːʃ// "edge" | ||||
After a short vowel, an unwritten epenthetic pronounced as //ə// gets inserted between + (as well as, when derived from devoiced), when within a morpheme boundary, e.g. Irish: gorm pronounced as //ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ// "blue", Irish: dearg pronounced as //ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ// "red", Irish: dorcha pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə// "dark", Irish: ainm pronounced as //ˈanʲəmʲ// "name", Irish: deilgneach pronounced as //ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx// "prickly, thorny"’ Irish: leanbh pronounced as //ˈl̠ʲanˠəw// "child", Irish: airgead pronounced as //ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ// "silver, money". The main exception to this is which is mainly used for pronounced as //ŋ// or pronounced as //ɲ//.
Epenthesis does not occur after long vowels and diphthongs, e.g. Irish: téarma pronounced as //tʲeːɾˠmˠə// "term" or Irish: dualgas pronounced as //ˈd̪ˠuəlˠɡəsˠ// "duty", or across morpheme boundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g. Irish: garmhac pronounced as //ˈɡaɾˠwak// "grandson" (from Irish: gar- "close, near" + Irish: mac "son"), Irish: an-chiúin pronounced as //ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ// "very quiet" (from Irish: an- "very" + Irish: ciúin "quiet"), Irish: carrbhealach pronounced as //ˈkaːɾˠvʲalˠəx// "carriageway, roadway" (from Irish: carr "car" + Irish: bealach "way, road").
In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when follow (after any vowel) or (after short vowels), and when follows .
See also: Irish conjugation. In verb forms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||||||
| -dh | broad | preterite | pronounced as //w// | pronounced as //ɡ// | Irish: moladh é pronounced as //ˈmˠɔlˠəw eː// "he was praised" | ||||
| elsewhere | before initial pronouns | pronounced as //tʲ// | pronounced as //x// | Irish: osclaíodh sí pronounced as //ˈɔsˠklˠiːtʲ ʃiː// "let her open" | |||||
| usually | pronounced as //w// | pronounced as //x// | Irish: bheannódh mé pronounced as //ˈvʲan̪ˠoːx mʲeː// "I would bless" | ||||||
| slender | before subject pronouns | pronounced as //∅// | pronounced as //ˈbʲan̪ˠoː// "will bless" | ||||||
| -ea- | in forms of "be" | pronounced as //ɛ// | Irish: bheadh sé pronounced as //ˈvʲɛtʲ ʃeː// "he would be" | ||||||
| -eo(i), ó(i)- | verb endings | pronounced as //oːxə// | pronounced as //oː// | Irish: bheannóinn pronounced as //ˈvʲan̪ˠoːn̠ʲ// "I would bless" | |||||
| -f- | in personal verb endings | pronounced as //h// | Irish: dhófadh pronounced as //ˈɣoːhəx// "would burn, Irish: déarfaidh pronounced as //ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː// "will say", Irish: brisfidh pronounced as //ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː// "will break", Irish: scuabfadh pronounced as //ˈsˠkuəpəx// "would sweep" | ||||||
| -(a)im | pronounced as //əmˠ// | pronounced as //əmʲ// | Irish: molaim pronounced as //ˈmˠɔlˠəmʲ// "I praise" | ||||||
| -(a)igh | before subject pronouns | pronounced as //ə// | Irish: bheannaigh mé pronounced as //ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː// "I blessed" | ||||||
currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, the overdot is replaced by a following, e.g. → "He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a following slash, e.g. Irish: fírinne → Irish: fi/rinne "truth".[12]
The acute accent (; Irish: agúid or Irish: (síneadh) fada "long (sign)") is used to indicate a long vowel, as in Irish: bád pronounced as //bˠaːd̪ˠ// "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:
The overdot (; Irish: ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though Irish: An Caighdeán exclusively uses a following for this purpose. In Old Irish, the overdot was only used for, while the following was used for and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent lenition of any consonant (except) until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following in Roman type. Thus the dotted letters (Irish: litreacha buailte "struck letters") are equivalent to letters followed by a, i.e. .
Lowercase has no tittle in Gaelic type, and road signs in the Republic of Ireland. However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does not graphemically distinguish dotted i and dotless ı, i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g. Turkish and Azeri.
Irish punctuation is similar to English. An apparent exception is the Tironian et (;) which abbreviates the word Irish: agus "and", like the ampersand abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by a seven in texts.
A hyphen (Irish: fleiscín) is used in Irish after when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. Irish: an t-arán "the bread", Irish: a n-iníon "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. Irish: an tAlbanach "the Scotsman", Irish: Ár nAthair "Our Father". No hyphen is used when is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g. Irish: a hiníon "her daughter".
A hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:
An apostrophe (Irish: uaschamóg) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:
Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (Irish: an tSín "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps (Irish: STAIR NA {{sc|H "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND").[13] An initial capital is used for:[14]
Most Irish abbreviations are straightforward, e.g. Irish: leathanach → ("page → p.") and Irish: mar shampla → (" (for example) → e.g."), but two that require explanation are: Irish: is é sin|italic=yes → ("that is → i.e.") and Irish: agus araile → ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc.").[17] Like in English, follows an ordinal numeral, e.g. "St. Patrick's day is the 17th [day] of March".
The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639.[18] The spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century.
The idea of a spelling reform, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.[19] The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish-English dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings. After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years. When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution. In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.[20] Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, Irish: Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil, published in 1945.
Some pre-reform spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their modern forms include: Irish: beirbhiughadh → Irish: beiriú, Irish: imthighthe → Irish: imithe, Irish: faghbháil → Irish: fáil, Irish: urradhas → Irish: urrús, Irish: filidheacht → Irish: filíocht.
The booklet was expanded in 1947,[21] and republished as Irish: [[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]] "The Official Standard" in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.[22] It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect. Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary. A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".[23] The result was the 2017 update of .[24]