Iodoacetic acid explained

Iodoacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is a derivative of acetic acid. It is a toxic compound, because, like many alkyl halides, it is an alkylating agent.

It reacts with cysteine residues in proteins. It is often used to modify groups to prevent the re-formation of disulfide bonds after the reduction of cystine residues to cysteine during protein sequencing.

In 1929, Dr. Einar Lundsgaard (1899-1968) discovered that muscle poisoned in vitro with iodoacetic acid is unable to produce lactate as glycolysis from muscle glycogen is blocked, causing the muscle to result in an electrically silent contracture.^{[1] [2]} It was remembering this discovery, that lead Dr. Brian McArdle in 1951, to speculate that one of his patients that had electromyographically silent muscle contractures brought on by high-intensity aerobic activity and anaerobic activity must have a defective muscle glycogen mechanism.^[3]

Peptidase inhibitor

Iodoacetate is an irreversible inhibitor of all cysteine peptidases, with the mechanism of inhibition occurring from alkylation of the catalytic cysteine residue (see schematic). In comparison with its amide derivative, iodoacetamide, iodoacetate reacts substantially slower. This observation appears contradictory to standard chemical reactivity, however the presence of a favourable interaction between the positive imidazolium ion of the catalytic histidine and the negatively charged carboxyl-group of the iodoacetic acid is the reason for the increased activity of iodoacetamide.^[4]

Possible cancer therapy

Several studies have shown iodoacetate has anti-tumor effects. In 2002 Fawzia Fahim showed that "a single IAA treatment of tumor-bearing mice significantly increased the levels of plasma lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, while it also significantly decreased the levels of plasma glucose and liver total protein, RNA and DNA, compared to normal controls."^[5] In 1975 Melvin S. Rhein, Joyce A. Filppi and Victor S. Moore showed that iodoacetate improved the immune response of bone marrow.^[6] In 1966 Charles A. Apffel, Barry G. Arnason & John H. Peters showed anti-tumor activity for iodoacetate.^[7]

As a disinfection by-product

Iodide is a naturally occurring ion that can be found in many source waters and it is easily oxidized by wastewater disinfectants. One of the products of iodide oxidation is hypoiodous acid or hypoiodite (HOI and respectively) which are capable of reacting with background organic materials to generate iodinated disinfection by-products (DBPs) including iodoacetic acid. In a study performed by Plewa, et al., IAA was determined to be one of the most cytotoxic of those studied, with a median lethal dose on the order of magnitude of 10⁻⁵ M. It was the most genotoxic of more than 60 DBPs studied and is the most genotoxic DBP identified thus far.^[8] Iodoacetic acid has exhibited traits indicating it as a potential carcinogen, however, it has not been proven to be carcinogenic.^[9] The trend continues in teratogenicity, with iodoacetic acid's potency surpassing that of its brominated and chlorinated analogs.^[10] Its toxicity correlates to its ability as an alkylating agent, which will modify cysteine residues in proteins.^[11] Monohaloacetic acids are the most toxic, with toxicity increasing with halogen size. Iodoacetic acid is more toxic than bromoacetic acid and much more toxic than chloroacetic acid.^[12]

Further reading

• Knap, A. K. . Pratt, R. F. . Inactivation of the RTEM-1 cysteine beta-lactamase by iodoacetate. The nature of active-site functional groups and comparisons with the native enzyme . . 1991 . 273 . 1 . 85–91 . 10.1042/bj2730085 . 1989590 . 1149883.
• Dickens, F. . Interaction of halogenacetates and SH compounds. The reaction of halogenacetic acids with glutathione and cysteine. The mechanism of iodoacetate poisoning of glyoxalase . . 1933 . 27 . 4 . 1141–1151 . 10.1042/bj0271141 . 16745202 . 1253000.

External links

• The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: Iodoacetate

Notes and References

1. Shorr . E. . Barker . S. B. . Malam . M. . 1938-02-18 . The Influence of Iodoacetic Acid on the Respiratory Metabolism of Mammalian Tissues . Science . en . 87 . 2251 . 168–169 . 10.1126/science.87.2251.168 . 17740354 . 1938Sci....87..168S . 0036-8075.
2. Lundsgaard, E., Biochem. Z., 217,162 (1930).
3. Layzer . Robert B. . 1985-02-07 . McArdle's Disease in the 1980s . New England Journal of Medicine . en . 312 . 6 . 370–371 . 10.1056/NEJM198502073120609 . 3855500 . 0028-4793.
4. Polgár, L. . Deuterium isotope effects on papain acylation. Evidence for lack of general base catalysis and for enzyme-leaving group interaction . European Journal of Biochemistry . 1979 . 98 . 2 . 369–374 . 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1979.tb13196.x . 488108 . free.
5. Fahim, F. A. . Esmat, A. Y. . Mady, E. A. . Ibrahim, E. K. . Antitumor Activities of Iodoacetate and Dimethylsulphoxide Against Solid Ehrlich Carcinoma Growth in Mice . Biological Research . 2003 . 36 . 2 . 253–262 . 14513720 . 10.4067/S0716-97602003000200015 . free.
6. Rhein, M. S. . Filppi, J. A. . Moore, V. S. . Effect of Iodoacetate on the Bone Marrow Immunocompetence of AKR Mice . Cancer Research . 1975 . 35 . 6 . 1514–1519 . 1093673 .
7. Apffel, C. A. . Arnason, B. G. . Peters, J. H. . Induction of tumour immunity with tumour cells treated with iodoacetate . Nature . 1966 . 209 . 5021 . 694–696 . 5922128 . 10.1038/209694a0 . 1966Natur.209..694A . 4296138.
8. Plewa. Michael J.. Wagner. Elizabeth D.. Richardson. Susan D.. Thruston. Alfred D. Jr.. Woo. Yin-Tak. McKague. A. Bruce. Chemical and Biological Characterization of Newly Discovered Iodoacid Drinking Water Disinfection Byproducts. Environmental Science & Technology. 2004. 38. 18. 4713–4722. 2004EnST...38.4713P. 10.1021/es049971v. 15487777.
9. Wei . Xiao . Wang . Shu . Zheng . Weiwei . Wang . Xia . Liu . Xiaolin . Jiang . Songhui . Pi . Jingbo . Zheng . Yuxin . He. Gengsheng. Qu. Weidong. Drinking Water Disinfection Byproduct Iodoacetic Acid Induces Tumorigenic Transformation of NIH3T3 Cells. Environmental Science & Technology. 2013. 47. 11 . 5913–5920 . 10.1021/es304786b. 23641915 . 2013EnST...47.5913W.
10. Richard. Ann M.. Hunter. E. Sidney III. Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships for the Developmental Toxicity of Haloacetic Acids in Mammalian Whole Embryo Culture. Teratology. 1996. 53. 6. 352–360. 8910981. 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9926(199606)53:6<352::AID-TERA6>3.0.CO;2-1.
11. Web site: Product #35603. Thermo Scientific. Pierce Protein Biology Products..
12. Richardson. Susan D.. Plewa. Michael J.. Wagner. Elizabeth D.. Shoeny. Rita. DeMarini. David M. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and roadmap for research. Mutation Research. 2007. 636. 1–3. 178–242. 17980649. 10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001.