pronounced as /notice/Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a phonological process involving a voiced alveolar tap or flap; it is found in many varieties of English, especially North American, Cardiff, Ulster, Australian and New Zealand English, where the voiceless alveolar stop consonant phoneme pronounced as /link/ is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap pronounced as /[ɾ]/, a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue, when placed between vowels. In London English, the flapped pronounced as /link/ is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the "posh" affricate pronounced as /link/ and the "rough" glottal stop pronounced as /link/. In some varieties, pronounced as /link/, the voiced counterpart of pronounced as //t//, may also be frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like latter and ladder sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination pronounced as //nt// may be pronounced as a nasalized flap pronounced as /link/, making winter sound similar or identical to winner.
Flapping of pronounced as //t// is sometimes perceived as the replacement of pronounced as //t// with pronounced as //d//; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".[1]
In other dialects of English, such as South African English, Scottish English, some Northern England English (like Scouse), and older varieties of Received Pronunciation, the flap is a variant of pronounced as //r// (see Pronunciation of English pronounced as //r//).
The terms flap and tap are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement. Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called flapping or tapping, while flapping has traditionally been more widely used. identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in autumn, Berta, otter, and murder, respectively).
In Cockney, another voiced variant of pronounced as //t// that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common glottal stop) is a simple voiced alveolar stop pronounced as /link/, which occurs especially in the words little pronounced as /[ˈlɪdʊ]/, hospital pronounced as /[ˈɒspɪdʊ]/ and whatever pronounced as /[wɒˈdɛvə]/. That too results in a (variable) merger with pronounced as //d//, whereas the tap does not.
In Cardiff English, the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to pronounced as //d//. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of hospital as pronounced as /[ˈɑspɪɾl̩]/ or pronounced as /[ˈɑspɪɾʊ]/ is quite similar to Cockney pronounced as /[ˈɒspɪdʊ]/, though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with pronounced as /link/.
Flapping of pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //d// is a prominent feature of North American English. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap pronounced as //t// between a stressed and an unstressed vowel. Flapping of pronounced as //t// also occurs in Australian, New Zealand and (especially Northern) Irish English, and more infrequently or variably in South African English, Cockney, and Received Pronunciation.
The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, pronounced as //t// or pronounced as //d//, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader). Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over pronounced as /[ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]/). This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever pronounced as /[ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]/). In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include pronounced as //r// (as in party) and occasionally pronounced as //l// (as in faulty). Flapping after pronounced as //l// is more common in Canadian English than in American English. Syllabic pronounced as //l// may also follow the flap (as in bottle). Flapping of pronounced as //t// before syllabic pronounced as //n// (as in button) is observed in Australian English, while pronounced as /[t]/ (with nasal release) and pronounced as /link/ (t-glottalization) are the only possibilities in North American English.
Morpheme-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a reduced one (namely pronounced as //ə//, morpheme-final or prevocalic pronounced as //i, oʊ//, or pronounced as //ɪ// preceding pronounced as //ŋ//, pronounced as //k//, etc.), so words like botox, retail, and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables, while pity, motto, and Keating can be. The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having secondary stress.
Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in foot-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization, and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the Withgott effect.
In North American English, the cluster pronounced as //nt// (but not pronounced as //nd//) in the same environment as flapped pronounced as //t// may be realized as a nasal flap pronounced as /[ɾ̃]/. Intervocalic pronounced as //n// is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous. According to, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter with pronounced as /[ɾ̃]/ or pronounced as /[nt]/ and winner with pronounced as /[n]/.
Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a phonological rule that accurately predicts flapping. Nevertheless, postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:
- after a sonorant other than pronounced as /l/, pronounced as /m/, or pronounced as /ŋ/, but with restrictions on pronounced as /n/;
- before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;
- when not in foot-initial position.
Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow, and together, wherein pronounced as //t// may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep pronounced as /[ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]/). In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen, and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed. In a handful of words such as seventy, ninety, and carpenter, pronounced as //nt// is frequently pronounced as pronounced as /[nd]/, retaining pronounced as //n// and voicing pronounced as //t//, although it may still become pronounced as /[ɾ̃]/ in rapid speech.
Flapping is a specific type of lenition, specifically intervocalic weakening. It leads to the neutralization of the distinction between pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //d// in appropriate environments, a partial merger of the two phonemes, provided that both pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //d// are flapped. Some speakers, however, flap only pronounced as //t// but not pronounced as //d//. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where pronounced as //t// is occasionally voiced to pronounced as /link/, yielding a variable merger of little and Lidl. For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:
| aborting | aboarding | pronounced as /əˈbɔɹɾɪŋ/ | |
| alighted | elided | pronounced as /əˈlaɪɾəd/ | With weak vowel merger. |
| ante | Annie | pronounced as /ˈæɾ̃i/ | |
| anti- | Annie | pronounced as /ˈæɾ̃i/ | |
| at 'em | Adam | pronounced as /ˈæɾəm/ | |
| at 'em | add 'em | pronounced as /ˈæɾəm/ | |
| atom | Adam | pronounced as /ˈæɾəm/ | |
| atom | add 'em | pronounced as /ˈæɾəm/ | |
| auntie | Annie | pronounced as /ˈæɾ̃i/ | |
| banter | banner | pronounced as /ˈbæɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| batter | badder | pronounced as /ˈbæɾəɹ/ | |
| batty | baddie | pronounced as /ˈbæɾi/ | |
| beating | beading | pronounced as /ˈbiːɾɪŋ/ | |
| Bertie | birdie | pronounced as /ˈbəɹɾi/ | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
| Bertie | Birdy; Birdie | pronounced as /ˈbəɹɾi/ | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
| betting | bedding | pronounced as /ˈbɛɾɪŋ/ | |
| biting | biding | pronounced as /ˈbaɪɾɪŋ/ | |
| bitter | bidder | pronounced as /ˈbɪɾəɹ/ | |
| bitting | bidding | pronounced as /ˈbɪɾɪŋ/ | |
| bitty | biddy | pronounced as /ˈbɪɾi/ | |
| blatter | bladder | pronounced as /ˈblæɾəɹ/ | |
| bleating | bleeding | pronounced as /ˈbliːɾɪŋ/ | |
| boating | boding | pronounced as /ˈboʊɾɪŋ/ | |
| bruter | brooder | pronounced as /ˈbɹuːɾəɹ/ | With yod-dropping after pronounced as //ɹ//. |
| butting | budding | pronounced as /ˈbʌɾɪŋ/ | |
| butty | buddy | pronounced as /ˈbʌɾi/ | |
| canter | canner | pronounced as /ˈkæɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| canton | cannon | pronounced as /ˈkæɾ̃ən/ | |
| canton | canon | pronounced as /ˈkæɾ̃ən/ | |
| carting | carding | pronounced as /ˈkɑɹɾɪŋ/ | |
| catty | caddy | pronounced as /ˈkæɾi/ | |
| centre; center | sinner | pronounced as /ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ/ | With pen–pin merger. |
| chanting | pronounced as /ˈt͡ʃæɾ̃ɪŋ/ | ||
| cited | sided | pronounced as /ˈsaɪɾɨd/ | |
| citer | cider | pronounced as /ˈsaɪɾəɹ/ | |
| clotting | clodding | pronounced as /ˈklɒɾɪŋ/ | |
| coating | coding | pronounced as /ˈkoʊɾɪŋ/ | |
| courting | chording | pronounced as /ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ/ | |
| courting | cording | pronounced as /ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ/ | |
| cuttle | cuddle | pronounced as /ˈkʌɾəl/ | |
| cutty | cuddy | pronounced as /ˈkʌɾi/ | |
| daughter | dodder | pronounced as /ˈdɑɾəɹ/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| daunting | dawning | pronounced as /ˈdɔɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| daunting | donning | pronounced as /ˈdɑɾ̃ɪŋ/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| debtor | deader | pronounced as /ˈdɛɾəɹ/ | |
| diluted | deluded | pronounced as /dɪˈluːɾəd/ | |
| don't it | doughnut | pronounced as /ˈdoʊɾ̃ət/ | With weak vowel merger and toe-tow merger. |
| dotter | dodder | pronounced as /ˈdɑɾəɹ/ | |
| doughty | dowdy | pronounced as /ˈdaʊɾi/ | |
| eluted | alluded | pronounced as /əˈluːɾəd/ | With weak vowel merger. |
| eluted | eluded | pronounced as /ɪˈluːɾəd/ | |
| enter | in a | pronounced as /ˈɪɾ̃ə/ | In non-rhotic accents with pen-pin merger. |
| enter | inner | pronounced as /ˈɪɾ̃əɹ/ | With pen-pin merger. |
| eta | Ada | pronounced as /ˈeɪɾə/ | |
| fated | faded | pronounced as /ˈfeɪɾɨd/ | |
| flutter | flooder | pronounced as /ˈflʌɾəɹ/ | |
| fontal | faunal | pronounced as /ˈfɑɾ̃əl/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| futile | feudal | pronounced as /ˈfjuːɾəl/ | With weak vowel merger. |
| garter | guarder | pronounced as /ˈgɑɹɾəɹ/ | |
| gaunter | goner | pronounced as /ˈgɑɾ̃əɹ/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| goated | goaded | pronounced as /ˈgoʊɾəd/ | |
| grater | grader | pronounced as /ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ/ | |
| greater | grader | pronounced as /ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ/ | |
| gritted | gridded | pronounced as /ˈgɹɪɾəd/ | |
| gritty | pronounced as /ˈɡɹɪɾi/ | ||
| hearty | hardy | pronounced as /ˈhɑːɹɾi/ | |
| heated | heeded | pronounced as /ˈhiːɾɨd/ | With meet-meat merger. |
| Hetty; Hettie | heady | pronounced as /ˈhɛɾi/ | |
| hurting | herding | pronounced as /ˈhɜːɹɾɪŋ/ | With fern-fir-fur merger. |
| inter- | in a | pronounced as /ˈɪɾ̃ə/ | In non-rhotic accents. |
| inter- | inner | pronounced as /ˈɪɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| iter | eider | pronounced as /ˈaɪɾəɹ/ | |
| jaunty | Johnny | pronounced as /ˈd͡ʒɑɾ̃i/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| jointing | joining | pronounced as /ˈd͡ʒɔɪɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| kitted | kidded | pronounced as /ˈkɪɾɨd/ | |
| kitty | kiddie | pronounced as /ˈkɪɾi/ | |
| knotted | nodded | pronounced as /ˈnɒɾɨd/ | |
| latter | ladder | pronounced as /ˈlæɾəɹ/ | |
| lauded | lotted | pronounced as /ˈlɑɾəd/ | With cot-caught merger. |
| linty | Lenny | pronounced as /ˈlɪɾ̃i/ | With pen-pin merger. |
| liter | leader | pronounced as /ˈliːɾəɹ/ | With meet-meat merger. |
| little | pronounced as /ˈlɪɾəl/ | ||
| looter | lewder | pronounced as /ˈluːɾəɹ/ | With yod-dropping after pronounced as //l//. |
| manta | manna | pronounced as /ˈmæɾ̃ə/ | |
| manta | manner | pronounced as /ˈmæɾ̃ə/ | In non-rhotic accents. |
| manta | manor | pronounced as /ˈmæɾ̃ə/ | In non-rhotic accents. |
| Marty | Mardi | pronounced as /ˈmɑːɹɾi/ | In the term Mardi Gras. |
| matter | madder | pronounced as /ˈmæɾəɹ/ | |
| mattocks | Maddox | pronounced as /ˈmæɾəks/ | |
| meant it | minute | pronounced as /ˈmɪɾ̃ɨt/ | With pen–pin merger. |
| metal | medal | pronounced as /ˈmɛɾəl/ | |
| metal | meddle | pronounced as /ˈmɛɾəl/ | |
| mettle | medal | pronounced as /ˈmɛɾəl/ | |
| mettle | meddle | pronounced as /ˈmɛɾəl/ | |
| minty | many | pronounced as /ˈmɪɾ̃i/ | With pen–pin merger. |
| minty | mini | pronounced as /ˈmɪɾ̃i/ | |
| minty | Minnie | pronounced as /ˈmɪɾ̃i/ | |
| motile | modal | pronounced as /ˈmoʊɾəl/ | With weak vowel merger. |
| mottle | model | pronounced as /ˈmɑɾəl/ | |
| mutter | mudder | pronounced as /ˈmʌɾəɹ/ | |
| neater | kneader | pronounced as /ˈniːɾəɹ/ | |
| neuter | nuder | pronounced as /ˈnuːɾəɹ, ˈnjuːɾəɹ, ˈnɪuɾəɹ/ | |
| nighter | nidor | pronounced as /ˈnaɪɾəɹ/ | |
| nitre; niter | nidor | pronounced as /ˈnaɪɾəɹ/ | |
| noted | noded | pronounced as /ˈnoʊɾɨd/ | |
| oater | odour; odor | pronounced as /ˈoʊɾəɹ/ | |
| otter | odder | pronounced as /ˈɒɾəɹ/ | |
| painting | paining | pronounced as /ˈpeɪɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| panting | panning | pronounced as /ˈpæɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| parity | parody | pronounced as /ˈpæɹəɾi/ | |
| patter | padder | pronounced as /ˈpæɾəɹ/ | |
| patting | padding | pronounced as /ˈpæɾɪŋ/ | |
| patty | paddy | pronounced as /ˈpæɾi/ | |
| petal | pedal | pronounced as /ˈpɛɾəl/ | |
| petal | peddle | pronounced as /ˈpɛɾəl/ | |
| pettle | pedal | pronounced as /ˈpɛɾəl/ | |
| pettle | peddle | pronounced as /ˈpɛɾəl/ | |
| platted | plaided | pronounced as /ˈplæɾəd/ | |
| planting | planning | pronounced as /ˈplæɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| pleating | pleading | pronounced as /ˈpliːɾɪŋ/ | |
| plenty | pronounced as /ˈplɪɾ̃i/ | With pen–pin merger. | |
| plotting | plodding | pronounced as /ˈplɒɾɪŋ/ | |
| potted | podded | pronounced as /ˈpɒɾɨd/ | |
| pouter | powder | pronounced as /ˈpaʊɾəɹ/ | |
| punting | punning | pronounced as /ˈpʌɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| putting | pudding | pronounced as /ˈpʊɾɪŋ/ | |
| rated | raided | pronounced as /ˈɹeɪɾɨd/ | With pane-pain merger. |
| rattle | raddle | pronounced as /ˈɹæɾəl/ | |
| righting | riding | pronounced as /ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ/ | |
| roti | roadie | pronounced as /ˈɹoʊɾi/ | |
| rooter | ruder | pronounced as /ˈɹuːɾəɹ/ | With yod-dropping after pronounced as //ɹ//. |
| rotting | rodding | pronounced as /ˈɹɒɾɪŋ/ | |
| router | ruder | pronounced as /ˈɹuːɾəɹ/ | With yod-dropping after pronounced as //ɹ//. |
| runty | runny | pronounced as /ˈɹʌɾ̃i/ | |
| rutty | ruddy | pronounced as /ˈɹʌɾi/ | |
| sainting | seining | pronounced as /ˈseɪɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| Saturday | sadder day | pronounced as /ˈsæɾəɹdeɪ/ | |
| satyr | Seder | pronounced as /ˈseɪɾəɹ/ | |
| saunter | sauna | pronounced as /ˈsɔɾ̃ə/ | In non-rhotic accents. |
| scented | synod | pronounced as /ˈsɪɾ̃əd/ | With pen-pin merger. |
| scenting | sinning | pronounced as /ˈsɪɾ̃ɪŋ/ | With pen-pin merger. |
| seating | seeding | pronounced as /ˈsiːɾɪŋ/ | With meet-meat merger. |
| sent it | senate | pronounced as /ˈsɛɾ̃ɨt/ | |
| set it | said it | pronounced as /ˈsɛɾɨt/ | |
| shunting | shunning | pronounced as /ˈʃʌɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| shutter | shudder | pronounced as /ˈʃʌɾəɹ/ | |
| sighted | sided | pronounced as /ˈsaɪɾɨd/ | |
| sighter | cider | pronounced as /ˈsaɪɾəɹ/ | |
| sinter | sinner | pronounced as /ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| sited | sided | pronounced as /ˈsaɪɾɨd/ | |
| skitting | skidding | pronounced as /ˈskɪɾɪŋ/ | |
| sorted | sordid | pronounced as /ˈsɔɹɾɨd/ | |
| slighting | sliding | pronounced as /ˈslaɪɾɪŋ/ | |
| stunting | stunning | pronounced as /ˈstʌɾ̃ɪŋ/ | |
| tarty | tardy | pronounced as /ˈtɑɹɾi/ | |
| tenter | tenner | pronounced as /ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| tenter | tenor | pronounced as /ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| tenting | tinning | pronounced as /ˈtɪɾɪŋ/ | With pen-pin merger. |
| title | tidal | pronounced as /ˈtaɪɾəl/ | |
| toting | toading | pronounced as /ˈtoʊɾɪŋ/ | |
| traitor | trader | pronounced as /ˈtɹeɪɾəɹ/ | With pane-pain merger. |
| tutor | Tudor | pronounced as /ˈtuːɾəɹ, ˈtjuːɾəɹ, ˈtɪuɾəɹ/ | |
| tweeted | tweeded | pronounced as /ˈtwiːɾəd/ | |
| utter | udder | pronounced as /ˈʌɾəɹ/ | |
| waiter | wader | pronounced as /ˈweɪɾəɹ/ | With pane-pain merger. |
| wattle | waddle | pronounced as /ˈwɑɾəl/ | |
| weighted | waded | pronounced as /ˈweɪɾəd/ | With pane-pain merger. |
| wetting | wedding | pronounced as /ˈwɛɾɪŋ/ | |
| winter | winner | pronounced as /ˈwɪɾ̃əɹ/ | |
| wheated | weeded | pronounced as /ˈwiːɾəd/ | With wine-whine merger. |
| whiter | wider | pronounced as /ˈwaɪɾəɹ/ | With wine–whine merger. |
| writing | riding | pronounced as /ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ/ |
In accents characterized by Canadian raising, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding pronounced as /[ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ]/, writing pronounced as /[ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ]/. Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before pronounced as //d// than before pronounced as //t//, due to pre-fortis clipping.
In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of American English, words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ ([[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]). How a word is chunked relates to its morphological derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet):
| Initial-type t | vs. | flapped-t | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| military | [ˈmɪlɨ<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''tʰ'''ɛɹi] || vs. || capital || [ˈkʰæpɨ'''ɾ'''l̩]|-|| militaristic || [ˌmɪlɨ<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''tʰ'''əˈɹɪstɪk] || vs. || capitalistic || [ˌkʰæpɨ'''ɾ'''ə<nowiki> | </nowiki>ˈlɪstɪk]|}The medial t in càpitalístic can be flapped as easily as in post-stress cátty [ˈkʰæɾi], in contrast to the medial t in mìlitarístic, which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as [tʰ], like a t at the beginning of a word. Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words [t]’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary stress or are at the beginning of a foot: Navra tilóva Abra cadábra Ala kazám Rázz matàzz But: Fliberti gibety Humu humu nuku nuku apu a‘a T-to-R ruleThe origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of pronounced as //t// and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as pronounced as //r//, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of pronounced as //r//, namely the approximant pronounced as /link/. It is applied in Northern England English and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that shut in the phrasal verb to shut up pronounced as //ʃʊrˈʊp// has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb to shut pronounced as //ʃʊt//. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position. The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the Cardiff dialect (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and South African English (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and pronounced as //ə// or the reduced pronounced as //ɪ// (also across word boundaries), so that starting pronounced as //ˈstaːtɪŋ// and starring pronounced as //ˈstaːrɪŋ// can be homophonous as pronounced as /[ˈstaːɹɪn ~ ˈstaːɾɪn]/. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of pronounced as //r// (making the starting–starring minimal pair homophonous as pronounced as /[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ]/), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for pronounced as //t// (pronounced as /[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ ~ stɑːtɪŋ]/) vs. approximant for pronounced as //r// (pronounced as /[ˈstɑːɹɪŋ]/). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.
See alsoBibliography
Further reading
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