| International Phonetic Alphabet | |
| Type: | Alphabet |
| Typedesc: | – partially featural |
| Languages: | Used for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any oral language |
| Time: | 1888 to present |
| Fam1: | Egyptian hieroglyphs |
| Fam2: | Proto-Sinaitic script |
| Fam3: | Phoenician alphabet |
| Fam4: | Greek alphabet |
| Fam5: | Latin script |
| Fam6: | Lepsius Standard Alphabet |
| Fam7: | Palaeotype alphabet, English Phonotypic Alphabet |
| Fam8: | Romic alphabet |
| Sample: | IPA in IPA.svg |
| Caption: | "IPA" in IPA (pronounced as /[aɪ̯ pʰiː eɪ̯]/) |
| Unicode: | See |
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation for the sounds of speech. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign language students and teachers, linguists, speech–language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators, and translators.[1] [2]
The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of lexical (and, to a limited extent, prosodic) sounds in oral language: phones, intonation and the separation of syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate—an extended set of symbols may be used.
Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English digraph (ch) may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: pronounced as /[c]/, or with multiple letters plus diacritics: pronounced as /[t̠̺͡ʃʰ]/, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal phonemic transcription; therefore, pronounced as //tʃ// is more abstract than either pronounced as /[t̠̺͡ʃʰ]/ or pronounced as /[c]/ and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.
Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,[3] there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical prosodic marks in the IPA. These are illustrated in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.[4]
See main article: History of the International Phonetic Alphabet. In 1886, a group of French and English language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, French: l'Association phonétique internationale). Their original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language. For example, the sound pronounced as /link/ (the sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter (c) in English, but with the digraph (French: ch) in French. In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.[5] The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, and Passy.
Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the Kiel Convention in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives.[6] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap.[7] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces.
Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound (speech segment). This means that:
The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not phonemes, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ((IPA|ˇ), once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and (IPA|ƞ), once used for the moraic nasal of Japanese), though one remains: (IPA|ɧ), used for the sj-sound of Swedish. When the IPA is used for broad phonetic or for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. The IPA has recommended that more 'familiar' letters be used when that would not cause ambiguity. For example, (IPA|e) and (IPA|o) for pronounced as /[ɛ]/ and pronounced as /[ɔ]/, (IPA|t) for pronounced as /[t̪]/ or pronounced as /[ʈ]/, (IPA|f) for pronounced as /[ɸ]/, etc. Indeed, in the illustration of Hindi in the IPA Handbook, the letters (IPA|c) and (IPA|ɟ) are used for pronounced as //t͡ʃ// and pronounced as //d͡ʒ//.
Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length, tone, stress, and intonation. These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA.
The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet. For this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, (IPA|ʔ), originally had the form of a question mark with the dot removed. A few letters, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, (IPA|ʕ), were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ⟨Arabic: [[Ayin|ﻉ]]⟩, , via the reversed apostrophe).[6]
Some letter forms derive from existing letters:
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin script, and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible. The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately Classical Latin). Hence, the consonant letters (IPA|b), (IPA|d), (IPA|f), (IPA|ɡ), (IPA|h), (IPA|k), (IPA|l), (IPA|m), (IPA|n), (IPA|p), (IPA|s), (IPA|t), (IPA|v), (IPA|w), and (IPA|z) have more or less their word-initial values in English (g as in gill, h as in hill, though p t k are unaspirated as in spill, still, skill); and the vowel letters (IPA|a), (IPA|e), (IPA|i), (IPA|o), (IPA|u) correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: pronounced as /[i]/ is like the vowel in machne, pronounced as /[u]/ is as in rle, etc. Other Latin letters, particularly (IPA|j), (IPA|r) and (IPA|y), differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages.
This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic. For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent uvular equivalents of their source letters.
There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. For most Greek letters, subtly different glyph shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically (IPA|ɑ), (IPA|ꞵ), (IPA|ɣ), (IPA|ɛ), (IPA|ɸ), (IPA|ꭓ) and (IPA|ʋ), which are encoded in Unicode separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – (IPA|θ) – has only its Greek form, while for (IPA|ꞵ ~ β) and (IPA|ꭓ ~ χ), both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.[8] The tone letters are not derived from an alphabet, but from a pitch trace on a musical scale.
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation.
There are two principal types of brackets used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions:
| Symbol ! | Use | |
|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /[ ... ]/ | Square brackets are used with phonetic notation, whether broad or narrow – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. | |
| pronounced as // ... // | Slashes are used for abstract phonemic notation, which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English pin and spin are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, phonemically the words are usually analyzed as pronounced as //ˈpɪn// and pronounced as //ˈspɪn//, with the same phoneme pronounced as //p//. To capture the difference between them (the allophones of pronounced as //p//), they can be transcribed phonetically as pronounced as /[pʰɪn]/ and pronounced as /[spɪn]/. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility often uses simple and 'familiar' letters rather than precise notation, for example pronounced as //r// and pronounced as //o// for the English pronounced as /[ɹʷ]/ and pronounced as /[əʊ̯]/ sounds, or pronounced as //c, ɟ// for pronounced as /[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]/ as mentioned above. |
Less common conventions include:
| Symbol ! | Use | |
|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /{ ... }/ | Braces ("curly brackets") are used for prosodic notation. See Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for examples in this system. | |
| pronounced as /( ... )/ | Parentheses are used for indistinguishable or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing), where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example pronounced as /(…)/ or pronounced as /(2 sec)/. The latter usage is made official in the extIPA, with unidentified segments circled. | |
| pronounced as /⸨ ... ⸩/ | Double parentheses indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound, as in pronounced as /⸨2σ⸩/, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA Handbook identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent. Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."[9] |
All three of the above are provided by the IPA Handbook. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets):
| Symbol | Field | Description | |
|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /⟦ ... ⟧/ | Phonetics | Double square brackets are used for especially precise phonetic transcription, often finer than is normally practicable.[10] This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, pronounced as /⟦a⟧/ is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "pronounced as /[a]/" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as (IPA|[e]) and (IPA|[ɛ]) may be clarified as actually being pronounced as /⟦e̝⟧/ and pronounced as /⟦e⟧/; (IPA|[ð]) may be more precisely pronounced as /⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧/.[11] Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target. | |
| Morphophonology | Double slashes are used for morphophonemic and diaphonemic transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are pipes and double pipes, from Americanist phonetic notation; and braces from set theory, especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. pronounced as /{t d}/ or pronounced as /{t|d}/ or pronounced as /{/t/, /d/}/. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription. | ||
| Graphemics | Angle brackets are used to mark both original Latin orthography and transliteration from another script; they are also used to identify individual graphemes of any script.[12] In IPA literature, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, (IPA|cot) would be used for the orthography of the English word cot, as opposed to its pronunciation pronounced as //ˈkɒt//. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with cot in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, this is sometimes ambiguous, and italic markup is not always accessible to sight-impaired readers who rely on screen reader technology. Vertical lines are used to denote glyphs, the etic units which represent individual concrete realizations of graphemes. For example, the different shapes of single-storey and double-storey glyphs both represent the single grapheme (a) in ordinary English writing, but represent distinct graphemes in the IPA.[13] |
Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature:
See main article: Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet and IPA Braille. IPA letters have cursive forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the Handbook recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher." A braille representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.[14]
The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See History of the IPA.) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The alveolo-palatal and epiglottal consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the lateral flap would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols". The indefinitely large number of tone letters would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all.
The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the Journal of the IPA. (See, for example, December 2008 on an open central unrounded vowel[15] and August 2011 on central approximants.)[16] Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).[17] A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA[18] – which is elected by the membership[19] – for further discussion and a formal vote.[20] [21]
Many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from its standardized usage.The Journal of the IPA finds it acceptable to mix IPA and extIPA symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter (IPA|), rather than (IPA|ʎ̝̊), in an illustration of the IPA.)
Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a narrow transcription. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets. Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
For example, the English word little may be transcribed broadly as pronounced as /[ˈlɪtəl]/, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: pronounced as /[ˈɫɪɾɫ]/ in General American, pronounced as /[ˈlɪʔo]/ in Cockney, or pronounced as /[ˈɫɪːɫ]/ in Southern US English.
Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as pronounced as //i//, so that pick, peak would be transcribed as pronounced as //ˈpik, ˈpiːk// or as pronounced as //ˈpɪk, ˈpik//; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French French: pique which would also be transcribed pronounced as //pik//. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of pick, peak, pique could be: pronounced as /[pʰɪk]/, pronounced as /[pʰiːk]/, pronounced as /[pikʲ]/.
IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with Americanist phonetic notation or Sinological phonetic notation or otherwise use nonstandard symbols for various reasons.[22] Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time.
Many British dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary and some learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words.[23] However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use (y) for IPA pronounced as /[ j]/ and (sh) for IPA pronounced as /[ ʃ ]/, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.[24] [25] (In IPA, pronounced as /[y]/ represents the sound of the French (u), as in French: tu, and pronounced as /[sh]/ represents the sequence of consonants in graopper.)
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew alphabet for transcription of foreign words. Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words. The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in Czech.
See main article: Case variants of IPA letters. IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the Africa Alphabet in many sub-Saharan languages such as Hausa, Fula, Akan, Gbe languages, Manding languages, Lingala, etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, Kabiyè of northern Togo has Ɖ ɖ, Ŋ ŋ, Ɣ ɣ, Ɔ ɔ, Ɛ ɛ, Ʋ ʋ. These, and others, are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.
In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name, but this convention was not included in the 1999 Handbook, which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol.
The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.[26] Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes[27] and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech.[28] Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database ... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".[29]
See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart. The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.
Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless (tenuis) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among "other symbols" even though theoretically they belong in the main chart. They are arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals) at top, to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives), and finally minimal closure (approximants) at bottom, again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant, as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; affricates may then be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible or not distinctive.
Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the "other symbols".
See also: IPA consonant chart with audio.
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.[30]
The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.pronounced as /pulmonic consonants/
Notes
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages and some neighboring Bantu languages of Africa), implosives (found in languages such as Sindhi, Hausa, Swahili and Vietnamese), and ejectives (found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages).pronounced as /non-pulmonic consonants/
Notes
Affricates and co-articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning. Affricates are optionally represented by ligatures (e.g. (IPA|ʧ, ʤ )), though this is no longer official IPA usage because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example (IPA|tˢ) for pronounced as /[t͜s]/, paralleling pronounced as /[kˣ]/ ~ pronounced as /[k͜x]/. The letters for the palatal plosives (IPA|c) and (IPA|ɟ) are often used as a convenience for pronounced as /[t͜ʃ]/ and pronounced as /[d͜ʒ]/ or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.pronounced as /affricates/
Co-articulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the pronounced as /[w]/ in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are pronounced as /[ʍ]/ and pronounced as /[ɥ]/. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of Laurent Gbagbo. pronounced as /co-articulated consonants/
Notes
See main article: Vowel.
See also: IPA vowel chart with audio.
The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center. Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.pronounced as /vowels/
The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, pronounced as /[ɑ]/ (the first vowel in father) is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. pronounced as /[i]/ (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.
In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as pronounced as /[ɛ]/, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as pronounced as /[ʌ]/, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.
In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in (IPA|ui̯) or (IPA|u̯i), or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in (IPA|uⁱ) or (IPA|ᵘi). Sometimes a tie bar is used: (IPA|u͜i), especially when it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide or when it is variable.
Notes
Diacritics are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.
By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA Handbook; other uses can be illustrated with (IPA|tˢ) (pronounced as /[t]/ with fricative release), (IPA|ᵗs) (pronounced as /[s]/ with affricate onset), (IPA|ⁿd) (prenasalized pronounced as /[d]/), (IPA|bʱ) (pronounced as /[b]/ with breathy voice), (IPA|mˀ) (glottalized pronounced as /[m]/), (IPA|sᶴ) (pronounced as /[s]/ with a flavor of pronounced as /[ʃ]/, i.e. a voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant), (IPA|oᶷ) (pronounced as /[o]/ with diphthongization), (IPA|ɯᵝ) (compressed pronounced as /[ɯ]/). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized (IPA|kʷ) may mean either simultaneous pronounced as /[k]/ and pronounced as /[w]/ or else pronounced as /[k]/ with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ((IPA|mˀ) glottalized pronounced as /[m]/, (IPA|ˀm) pronounced as /[m]/ with a glottal onset). (See .)
| Airstream diacritics | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /◌ʼ/ | pronounced as /kʼ sʼ/ | Ejective | ||||
| Syllabicity diacritics | ||||||
| pronounced as /◌̩/ | pronounced as /ɹ̩ n̩/ | Syllabic | pronounced as /◌̯/ | pronounced as /ɪ̯ ʊ̯/ | Non-syllabic | |
| pronounced as /◌̍/ | pronounced as /ɻ̍ ŋ̍/ | pronounced as /◌̑/ | pronounced as /y̑/ | |||
| Consonant-release diacritics | ||||||
| pronounced as /◌ʰ/ | pronounced as /tʰ/ | Aspirated | pronounced as /◌̚/ | pronounced as /p̚/ | No audible release | |
| pronounced as /◌ⁿ/ | pronounced as /dⁿ/ | Nasal release | pronounced as /◌ˡ/ | pronounced as /dˡ/ | Lateral release | |
| pronounced as /◌ᶿ/ | pronounced as /tᶿ/ | Voiceless dental fricative release | pronounced as /◌ˣ/ | pronounced as /tˣ/ | Voiceless velar fricative release | |
| pronounced as /◌ᵊ/ | pronounced as /dᵊ/ | Mid central vowel release | ||||
| Phonation diacritics | ||||||
| pronounced as /◌̥/ | pronounced as /n̥ d̥/ | Voiceless | pronounced as /◌̬/ | pronounced as /s̬ t̬/ | Voiced | |
| pronounced as /◌̊/ | pronounced as /ɻ̊ ŋ̊/ | |||||
| pronounced as /◌̤/ | pronounced as /b̤ a̤/ | Breathy voiced | pronounced as /◌̰/ | pronounced as /b̰ a̰/ | Creaky voiced | |
| Articulation diacritics | ||||||
| pronounced as /◌̪/ | pronounced as /t̪ d̪/ | Dental | pronounced as /◌̼/ | pronounced as /t̼ d̼/ | Linguolabial | |
| pronounced as /◌͆/ | pronounced as /ɮ͆/ | |||||
| pronounced as /◌̺/ | pronounced as /t̺ d̺/ | Apical | pronounced as /◌̻/ | pronounced as /t̻ d̻/ | Laminal | |
| pronounced as /◌̟/ | pronounced as /u̟ t̟/ | Advanced (fronted) | pronounced as /◌̠/ | pronounced as /i̠ t̠/ | Retracted (backed) | |
| pronounced as /◌᫈/ | pronounced as /ɡ᫈/ | pronounced as /◌̄/ | pronounced as /q̄/ | |||
| pronounced as /◌̈/ | pronounced as /ë ä/ | Centralized | pronounced as /◌̽/ | pronounced as /e̽ ɯ̽/ | Mid-centralized | |
| pronounced as /◌̝/ | pronounced as /e̝ r̝/ | Raised (pronounced as /[r̝], [ɭ˔]/ are fricatives) | pronounced as /◌̞/ | pronounced as /e̞ β̞/ | Lowered (pronounced as /[β̞], [ɣ˕]/ are approximants) | |
| pronounced as /◌˔/ | pronounced as /ɭ˔/ | pronounced as /◌˕/ | pronounced as /y˕ ɣ˕/ | |||
| Co-articulation diacritics | ||||||
| pronounced as /◌̹/ | pronounced as /ɔ̹ x̹/ | More rounded / less spread (over-rounding) | pronounced as /◌̜/ | pronounced as /ɔ̜ xʷ̜/ | Less rounded / more spread (under-rounding) | |
| pronounced as /◌͗/ | pronounced as /y͗ χ͗/ | pronounced as /◌͑/ | pronounced as /y͑ χ͑ʷ/ | |||
| pronounced as /◌ʷ/ | pronounced as /tʷ dʷ/ | Labialized | pronounced as /◌ʲ/ | pronounced as /tʲ dʲ/ | Palatalized | |
| pronounced as /◌ˠ/ | pronounced as /tˠ dˠ/ | Velarized | pronounced as /◌̴/ | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /ᵶ/ | Velarized or pharyngealized | |
| pronounced as /◌ˤ/ | pronounced as /tˤ aˤ/ | Pharyngealized | ||||
| pronounced as /◌̘/ | pronounced as /e̘ o̘/ | Advanced tongue root | pronounced as /◌̙/ | pronounced as /e̙ o̙/ | Retracted tongue root | |
| pronounced as /◌꭪/ | pronounced as /y꭪/ | pronounced as /◌꭫/ | pronounced as /y꭫/ | |||
| pronounced as /◌̃/ | pronounced as /ẽ z̃/ | Nasalized | pronounced as /◌˞/ | pronounced as /ɚ ɝ/ | Rhoticity | |
Notes:
Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a descender, as in voiceless (IPA|ŋ̊). The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms (IPA|˔), (IPA|˕) that avoid descenders.
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis phonation is:
| Open glottis | pronounced as /[t]/ | voiceless | |
|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /[d̤]/ | breathy voice, also called murmured | ||
| pronounced as /[d̥]/ | slack voice | ||
| Sweet spot | pronounced as /[d]/ | modal voice | |
| pronounced as /[d̬]/ | stiff voice | ||
| pronounced as /[d̰]/ | creaky voice | ||
| Closed glottis | pronounced as /[ʔ͡t]/ | glottal closure |
Additional diacritics are provided by the Extensions to the IPA for speech pathology.
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or phrase. These include prosody, pitch, length, stress, intensity, tone and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech. Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the Kiel Convention and used in the IPA Handbook despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart.
Under capital letters below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed pronounced as /[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ/ or prefixed pronounced as /[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]/, or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as (IPA|˔) or (IPA|˜) at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.
| Length, stress, and rhythm | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /ˈke/ | Primary stress (appears before stressed syllable) | pronounced as /ˌke/ | Secondary stress (appears before stressed syllable) | |
| pronounced as /eː kː/ | Long (long vowel or geminate consonant) | pronounced as /eˑ/ | Half-long | |
| pronounced as /ə̆ ɢ̆/ | Extra-short | |||
| pronounced as /ek.ste/ pronounced as /eks.te/ | Syllable break (internal boundary) | pronounced as /es‿e/ | Linking (lack of a boundary; a phonological word) | |
| Intonation | ||||
| pronounced as // | Minor or foot break | pronounced as /‖/ | Major or intonation break | |
| pronounced as /↗︎/ | Global rise | pronounced as /↘︎/ | Global fall | |
| Up- and down-step | ||||
| pronounced as /ꜛke/ | Upstep | pronounced as /ꜜke/ | Downstep | |
Notes:
| Pitch diacritics | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /ŋ̋ e̋/ | Extra high | pronounced as /ŋ̌ ě/ | Rising | pronounced as /ŋ᷄ e᷄/ | Mid-rising | |||||||
| pronounced as /ŋ́ é/ | High | pronounced as /ŋ̂ ê/ | Falling | pronounced as /ŋ᷅ e᷅/ | Low-rising | |||||||
| pronounced as /ŋ̄ ē/ | Mid | pronounced as /ŋ᷈ e᷈/ | Peaking (rising - falling) | pronounced as /ŋ᷇ e᷇/ | High-falling | |||||||
| pronounced as /ŋ̀ è/ | Low | pronounced as /ŋ᷉ e᷉/ | Dipping (falling - rising) | pronounced as /ŋ᷆ e᷆/ | Mid-falling | |||||||
| Extra low | (etc.) | |||||||||||
| Chao tone letters | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /˥e/ | pronounced as /꜒e/ | pronounced as /e˥/ | pronounced as /e꜒/ | High |
| pronounced as /˦e/ | pronounced as /꜓e/ | pronounced as /e˦/ | pronounced as /e꜓/ | Half-high |
| pronounced as /˧e/ | pronounced as /꜔e/ | pronounced as /e˧/ | pronounced as /e꜔/ | Mid |
| pronounced as /˨e/ | pronounced as /꜕e/ | pronounced as /e˨/ | pronounced as /e꜕/ | Half-low |
| pronounced as /˩e/ | pronounced as /꜖e/ | pronounced as /e˩/ | pronounced as /e꜖/ | Low |
| pronounced as /˩˥e/ | pronounced as /꜖꜒e/ | pronounced as /e˩˥/ | pronounced as /e꜖꜒/ | Rising (low to high or generic) |
| pronounced as /˥˩e/ | pronounced as /꜒꜖e/ | pronounced as /e˥˩/ | pronounced as /e꜒꜖/ | Falling (high to low or generic) |
| (etc.) | ||||
The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high (IPA|ˉe), mid (IPA|˗e), low (IPA|ˍe), rising (IPA|ˊe), falling (IPA|ˋe), low rising (IPA|ˏe) and low falling (IPA|ˎe).
Officially, the stress marks (IPA|ˈ ˌ) appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period). Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset. In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be doubled (IPA|ˈˈ) for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled (IPA|ˌˌ) for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA. Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, (IPA|¦), to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.
There are three boundary markers: (IPA|.) for a syllable break, (IPA||}} for a minor prosodic break and (IPA|‖) for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a foot break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, (IPA|‖‖), for a stronger break.
Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: (IPA|μ) for a mora or mora boundary, (IPA|σ) for a syllable or syllable boundary, (IPA|+) for a morpheme boundary, (IPA|#) for a word boundary (may be doubled, (IPA|##), for e.g. a breath-group boundary),[32] (IPA|$) for a phrase or intermediate boundary and (IPA|%) for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-pausa vowel, and σC a syllable-initial consonant.
See also: tone letter. (IPA|ꜛ ꜜ) are defined in the Handbook as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for pitch reset, and the IPA Handbook uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language.
Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch (IPA|é)) or by Chao tone letters placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., (IPA|é), (IPA|˦e), (IPA|e˦), (IPA|꜓e), (IPA|e꜓) and (IPA|ˉe) for a high pitch/tone.[33] Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the Chart, and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, (IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩), for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, (IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖), for surface tone, as occurs in tone sandhi, and for the intonation of non-tonal languages. In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 Handbook, tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to pronounced as /[↗︎]/ global rise and pronounced as /[↘︎]/ global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction.
Rising and falling pitch, as in contour tones, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising pronounced as /[ě]/ and acute plus grave for falling pronounced as /[ê]/. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising pronounced as /[e᷄]/, low rising pronounced as /[e᷅]/, high falling pronounced as /[e᷇]/, and low/mid falling pronounced as /[e᷆]/.
The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising pronounced as /[e˨˦]/, extra-high falling pronounced as /[e˥˦]/, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters (IPA|˦ ˨) may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.[34]
The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters, but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch (IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙) and low-pitch (IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷). Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as (IPA|˗ ˴)), and then only accidentally.
Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way." Using diacritics, a high tone is (IPA|é) and a low tone is (IPA|è); in tone letters, these are (IPA|e˥) and (IPA|e˩). One can double the diacritics for extra-high (IPA|e̋) and extra-low (IPA|ȅ); there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high (IPA|e˦) and mid-low (IPA|e˨); again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. Thus in a three-register tone system, (IPA|é ē è) are equivalent to (IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩), while in a four-register system, (IPA|e̋ é è ȅ) may be equivalent to (IPA|e˥ e˦ e˨ e˩).
The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation, though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) pronounced as /e᷈/ and dipping (falling-rising) pronounced as /e᷉/ combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail (pronounced as /e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦/, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart. The system allows the transcription of 112 peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length.
| pronounced as /e˩/ | pronounced as /e˩˩/ | pronounced as /e˩˧/ | pronounced as /e˧˩/ | pronounced as /e˩˧˩/ | pronounced as /e˧˩˧/ | |
| pronounced as /e˨/ | pronounced as /e˨˨/ | pronounced as /e˨˦/ | pronounced as /e˦˨/ | pronounced as /e˨˦˨/ | pronounced as /e˦˨˦/ | |
| pronounced as /e˧/ | pronounced as /e˧˧/ | pronounced as /e˧˥/ | pronounced as /e˥˧/ | pronounced as /e˧˥˧/ | pronounced as /e˥˧˥/ | |
| pronounced as /e˦/ | pronounced as /e˦˦/ | pronounced as /e˧˥˩/ | pronounced as /e˧˩˥/ | |||
| pronounced as /e˥/ | pronounced as /e˥˥/ | pronounced as /e˩˥/ | pronounced as /e˥˩/ | pronounced as /e˩˥˧/ | pronounced as /e˥˩˧/ |
More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of pronounced as /[꜔꜒꜖꜔]/ (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.
Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ((IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩)), or after the phonological word, for a language with word tone ((IPA|avɔ˧˥˩)). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ((IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ), (IPA|˧˥˩avɔ)), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: (IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ), (IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ).) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed.
IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree (greater intensity) of the feature indicated. This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, (IPA|ə̋, ə̏), the major prosodic break (IPA|‖) being marked as a doubled minor break (IPA|), and a couple other instances, such usage is not enumerated by the IPA.
For example, the stress mark may be doubled (or even tripled, etc.) to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.[35] An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each prosodic unit (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double or even triple stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: pronounced as /[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]/ French: Entrez monsieur, voilà madame.[36] Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark (IPA|ˌˌ) is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress, though a proposal to officially adopt this was rejected.[37] In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation (IPA|˶) and an emphatic falling intonation (IPA|˵).[38]
Length is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, which may be phonetic, as in pronounced as /[ĕ e eˑ eː eːˑ eːː]/ etc., as in English shhh! pronounced as /[ʃːːː]/, or phonemic, as in the "overlong" segments of Estonian:
(Normally additional phonemic degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, i.e. (IPA|e eˑ eː) or (IPA|ĕ e eː), but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as typically short and long, pronounced as //e eː// and pronounced as //n nː//, requiring a different remedy for the additional words.)
Delimiters are similar: double slashes indicate extra phonemic (morpho-phonemic), double square brackets especially precise transcription, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.
Occasionally other diacritics are doubled:
The extIPA provides combining parentheses for weak intensity, which when combined with a doubled diacritic indicate an intermediate degree. For instance, increasing degrees of nasalization of the vowel pronounced as /[e]/ might be written (IPA|e ẽ᪻ ẽ ẽ̃᪻ ẽ̃).
As noted above, IPA letters are often used quite loosely in broad transcription if no ambiguity would arise in a particular language. Because of that, IPA letters have not generally been created for sounds that are not distinguished in individual languages. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative (IPA|ʝ) and the velar approximant (IPA|ɰ) to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, (IPA|β) and (IPA|ð) can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, (IPA|ʁ) and (IPA|ʕ) are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. (IPA|h) and (IPA|ɦ) are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription.
Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. (IPA|c) and (IPA|ɟ) are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically pronounced as /[t͜ʃ]/ and pronounced as /[d͜ʒ]/, while (IPA|ɲ) and (IPA|ʎ) are commonly used for palatalized alveolar pronounced as /[n̠ʲ]/ and pronounced as /[l̠ʲ]/. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision.
It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives (IPA|ʜ) and (IPA|ʢ) are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling. This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives pronounced as /[ħ, ʕ]/ together with the epiglottal plosive pronounced as /[ʡ]/ and trills pronounced as /[ʜ ʢ]/ into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in Shilha Berber the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.[43] [44] Although they might be transcribed (IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠) to indicate this, the far more common transcription is (IPA|ʜ ʢ), which is therefore ambiguous between languages.
Among vowels, (IPA|a) is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language.
For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use.
Superscript IPA letters are used to indicate secondary aspects of articulation. These may be aspects of simultaneous articulation that are considered to be in some sense less dominant than the basic sound, or may be transitional articulations that are interpreted as secondary elements.[45] Examples include secondary articulation; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. The IPA and ICPLA endorse Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary segmental letters, including the "implicit" IPA retroflex letters (IPA|ꞎ ᶑ  ).[46] [47] [48]
Superscripts are often used as a substitute for the tie bar, for example (IPA|tᶴ) for pronounced as /[t͜ʃ]/ and (IPA|kᵖ) or (IPA|ᵏp) for pronounced as /[k͜p]/. However, in precise notation there is a difference between a fricative release in pronounced as /[tᶴ]/ and the affricate pronounced as /[t͜ʃ]/, between a velar onset in pronounced as /[ᵏp]/ and doubly articulated pronounced as /[k͜p]/.[49]
Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by combining diacritics, just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal in (IPA|ⁿ̪d̪), a superscript voiceless velar nasal in (IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ), and labial-velar prenasalization in (IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b). Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. (IPA|ᵓ̃), this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla (IPA|ᶜ̧) and rhotic vowels (IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞). Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. pronounced as /[pʰ tʰ𐞂 kʰ𐞁]/. Another option is to use extIPA parentheses and a doubled diacritic: (IPA|p⁽ʰ⁾ tʰ kʰʰ).
See main article: Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet, Click letter and Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet.
A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature.
The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter (IPA|ɷ), rejected in favor of (IPA|ʊ). Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as (IPA|ʧ ʤ ) (and others, some of which not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: (IPA|ƍ) for pronounced as /[zʷ]/ is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, (IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ ), were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written (IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ ). The original set of click letters, (IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ), was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters (IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ) can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([] or / /), the letter (IPA|l) (small L), or the prosodic marks (IPA||, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.)[50]
Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with:
In addition, it is common to see ad hoc typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. S for (IPA| ʃ ). (See also SAMPA and X-SAMPA substitute notation.)
See main article: Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet. The Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech, commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions, which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.[51] The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA. While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips, as well as regular lexical sounds such as lateral fricatives that do not have standard IPA symbols.
In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the Voice Quality Symbols, which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality".
Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways.
There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are:
Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for (IPA|ŋ), S for (IPA| ʃ ), O for (IPA|ɔ) - see SAMPA). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases:
Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from pronounced as //V// (an atonic vowel) to pronounced as //CGVNᵀ// (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and word-final devoicing may be schematized as pronounced as /C/ → pronounced as /C̥//_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. pronounced as /[ᴰ]/ is a weak indeterminate alveolar, pronounced as /[ᴷ]/ a weak indeterminate velar.[55]
There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but (IPA|C) for, (IPA|V) for and (IPA|N) for are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are (IPA|T) for (tonicity), (IPA|P) for, (IPA|F) for, (IPA|S) for, (IPA|G) for, (IPA|L) for or, (IPA|R) for or, (IPA|₵) for, (IPA|Ʞ) for, (IPA|A, E, O, Ɨ, U) for and (IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H) for, respectively, and (IPA|X) for, as in (IPA|CVX) for a heavy syllable . The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example (IPA|Cʼ) for, (IPA|Ƈ ) for, (IPA|N͡C) or (IPA|ᴺC) for, (IPA|Ṽ) for, (IPA|CʰV́) for, (IPA|S̬) for, (IPA|N̥) for, (IPA|P͡F) or (IPA|Pꟳ) for, (IPA|Cᴳ) for a consonant with a glide as secondary articulation (e.g. (IPA|Cʲ) for and (IPA|Cʷ) for) and (IPA|D̪) for . (IPA|H), (IPA|M), (IPA|L) are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with (IPA|LH) for rising tone and (IPA|HL) for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.
Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are (IPA|I) for the Turkish harmonic vowel set pronounced as //; (IPA|D) for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English writer and rider; (IPA|N) for the homorganic syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and (IPA|R) in cases where a phonemic distinction between trill pronounced as //r// and flap pronounced as //ɾ// is conflated, as in Spanish enrejar pronounced as //eNreˈxaR// (the n is homorganic and the first r is a trill, but the second r is variable).[56] Similar usage is found for phonemic analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes pronounced as //Θ// and pronounced as //S//, which surface as pronounced as /[θ]/ and pronounced as /[s]/ in voiceless environments and as pronounced as /[ð]/ and pronounced as /[z]/ in voiced environments (e.g. hazte pronounced as //ˈaΘte//, → pronounced as /[ˈaθte]/, vs hazme pronounced as //ˈaΘme//, → pronounced as /[ˈaðme]/; or las manos pronounced as //laS ˈmanoS//, → pronounced as /[lazˈmanos]/).[57]
(IPA|V), (IPA|F) and (IPA|C) have completely different meanings as Voice Quality Symbols, where they stand for "voice" (VoQS jargon for secondary articulation), "falsetto" and "creak". These three letters may take diacritics to indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used as carrier letters to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of Scottish Gaelic pronounced as /[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]/ 'cat' and pronounced as /[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]/ 'cats' (Islay dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: pronounced as /Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]/ and pronounced as /Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]/. The conventional wildcards (IPA|X) or (IPA|C) might be used instead of VoQS (IPA|V) so that the reader does not misinterpret (IPA|Vʷ) as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. pronounced as /Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]/ for all segments labialized, pronounced as /Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]/ for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. pronounced as /ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]/, pronounced as /[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]/ or pronounced as /[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ/). (See for other transcription conventions.)
This summary is to some extent valid internationally, but linguistic material written in other languages may have different associations with capital letters used as wildcards. For example, in German (IPA|K) and (IPA|V) are used for Konsonant (consonant) and Vokal (vowel); in French, tone may be transcribed with (IPA|H) and (IPA|B) for haut (high) and bas (low).[58]
The blank cells on the summary IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises.
The missing retroflex letters, namely (IPA|ᶑ ꞎ  ), are "implicit" in the alphabet, and the IPA supported their adoption into Unicode. Attested in the literature are the retroflex implosive (IPA|ᶑ ), the voiceless retroflex lateral fricative (IPA|ꞎ ), the retroflex lateral flap (IPA| ) and the retroflex click (IPA| ); the first is also mentioned in the IPA Handbook, and the lateral fricatives are provided for by the extIPA.
The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" (IPA|ʜ ʢ). Ad hoc letters for near-close central vowels, (IPA|ᵻ ᵿ), are used in some descriptions of English, though those are specifically reduced vowels (forming a set with the IPA reduced vowels (IPA|ə ɐ)), and the simple points in vowel space are easily transcribed with diacritics: (IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈) or (IPA|ɨ̞ ʉ̞). Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts. If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk (IPA|*) may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in (IPA|k*) sometimes seen for the Korean "fortis" velar).
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, pronounced as /[β̞]/ and pronounced as /[ð̞]/ respectively. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives can be written as raised lateral approximants, pronounced as /[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]/, though the extIPA also provides (IPA|) for the first of these. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, pronounced as /[ⱱ̟]/.[59] Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written pronounced as /[ʙ̪]/ (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and the labiodental plosives are now universally (IPA|p̪ b̪) rather than the ad hoc letters (IPA|ȹ ȸ) once found in Bantuist literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. pronounced as /[ ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]/, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted pronounced as /[r̠]/, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining pulmonic consonants - the uvular laterals (pronounced as /[ʟ̠ ̠ ʟ̠˔]/) and the palatal trill - while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of pronounced as /[ʊ]/ can be transcribed as mid-centered pronounced as /[ɯ̽]/, and the rounded equivalent of pronounced as /[æ]/ as raised pronounced as /[ɶ̝]/ or lowered pronounced as /[œ̞]/ (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple pronounced as /[ɶ]/ already is the rounded equivalent of pronounced as /[æ]/). True mid vowels are lowered pronounced as /[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]/ or raised pronounced as /[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]/, while centered pronounced as /[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]/ and pronounced as /[ä]/ (or, less commonly, pronounced as /[ɑ̈]/) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively.
The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded (IPA|ʏʷ) and compressed (IPA|uᵝ) (or protruded (IPA|ɪʷ) and compressed (IPA|ɯᶹ)), though this transcription suggests that they are diphthongs (as indeed they are in Swedish).The extIPA 'spread' diacritic (IPA|◌͍) is sometimes seen, for compressed (IPA|u͍), (IPA|o͍), (IPA|ɔ͍), (IPA|ɒ͍), though the intended meaning needs to be explained or they will be interpreted as being spread the way pronounced as /[i]/ is.Ladefoged & Maddieson used the old IPA omega diacritic for labialization, (IPA|◌̫), for protrusion (w-like labialization without velarization), e.g. protruded (IPA|y᫇), (IPA|ʏ̫), (IPA|ø̫), (IPA|œ̫); while Kelly & Local use a combining w diacritic (IPA|◌ᪿ) for protrusion (e.g. (IPA|yᷱ øᪿ)) and a combining turned w diacritic (IPA|◌ᫀ) for compression (e.g. (IPA|uᫀ oᫀ)). (IPA|◌̫) is the cursive form of (IPA|◌ᪿ), and these solutions recall an old IPA convention of rounding an unrounded vowel letter like i with a subscript (IPA|◌̫)/omega, and unrounding a rounded letter like u with a turned omega.[60]
See main article: Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet. An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.[61] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA Handbook differ. For example, the Handbook calls (IPA|ɛ) "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e".
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters. Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as (IPA|ʕ), may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block.
For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, (IPA|é) is "e-acute", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so (IPA|d̪) is called "d-bridge".
Geoffrey Pullum and list a variety of names in use for both current and retired IPA symbols in their Phonetic Symbol Guide. Many of them found their way into Unicode.
Unicode supports nearly all of the IPA. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are IPA Extensions, Spacing Modifier Letters and Combining Diacritical Marks, with lesser support from Phonetic Extensions, Phonetic Extensions Supplement, Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, and scattered characters elsewhere. The extended IPA is supported primarily by those blocks and Latin Extended-G.
See main article: IPA number. After the Kiel Convention in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.
Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.[62] Web browsers generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system.
Typefaces that provide full IPA and nearly full extIPA support, including properly rendering the diacritics, include Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, and Andika.In addition to the level of support found in commercial and system fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, through a character variant option that suppresses the stave of the Chao tone letters. They also have an option to maintain the (IPA|a) ~ (IPA|ɑ) vowel distinction when set in italic. The only notable gaps are with the extIPA: the combining parentheses, which enclose diacritics, need to be set individually, as the character for paired parentheses is not supported; nor is the enclosing circle used to mark unidentified sounds supported, as it is essentially a copy-edit mark and Unicode handling has not been worked out.
The basic Latin Noto fonts also have decent IPA support, including diacritic placement, only failing with the more obscure characters.
The Microsoft Arial and Times New Roman fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The Apple system fonts Geneva, Lucida Grande and Hiragino (certain weights) have only basic IPA support. The Calibri font, which is the default font of Microsoft Office, has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering, though not as good as what is available with free fonts (see image at right).
Brill has complete IPA and extIPA coverage of characters added to Unicode by 2020, with good diacritic and tone-letter support. It is a commercial font but is freely available for non-commercial use.[63]
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include SAMPA and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
IETF language tags have registered as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.[64] Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as .For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, is available.
Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics. Examples are the IPA 2018 i-charts hosted by the IPA,[65] IPA character picker 27 at GitHub,[66] Type IPA phonetic symbols at TypeIt.org,[67] and an IPA Chart keyboard also at GitHub.[68] In April 2019, Google's Gboard for Android added an IPA keyboard to its platform.[69] [70] For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, such as the IPA Phonetic Keyboard.[71]
pronounced as /navigation/
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