Peruvian conflict explained

Conflict:Peruvian conflict
Partof:the Cold War (1980–1991) and the War on Drugs (1980–present)
Date:Main phase:
17 May 1980 – December 2000[1] [2]
Low-level activity:
22 June 2002 – present[3]
Place:Peru
Status:Ongoing
Territory:Successful control of 98% of Peruvian territory by the Government of Peru.
Combatant1: Peru

State-affiliated paramilitaries:
Rondas campesinas
Sole National Central of Peasant Rounds of Peru
Franco Command (1985–1990)
Grupo Colina (1990–1999)
Supported by:
Colombia[4]
[5]
[6]
Spain[7]
United States[8]

Combatant2: Shining Path
  • People's Guerrilla Army

Supported by:
MOVADEF
FUDEPP[9]
[10]
ICL
Abu Nidal Organization[11] (until 2002)
RIM[12] (until 2012)
Libya (until 2011)[13] ---- MPCP
Supported by:
China (alleged)
ASPRET (until 2022)---- Red Mantaro Base Committee
FARC-EP in Peru
Supported by:
FARC dissidents[14] ---- ASPRET
Ethnocacerist Movement
Supported by:
[15] [16]
MPCP (until 2022)---- Huallaga faction (1999–2012)---- MRTA (1982–1997)
Supported by:
19th of April Movement[17]
FMLN[18]
FSLN[19]
Cuba (alleged, denied by Cuba)
Libya[20]
(until 1991)

Commander1:
Commander2:----
Strength1:unknown
Strength2: 15,000 militants (peak)
~250–650 (2015)[22] ---- ~200 militants (peak)
Casualties4:~50,000–69,280 killed in total (1980–2002)[23] [24]

The Peruvian conflict is an ongoing armed conflict between the Government of Peru and the Maoist guerilla group Shining Path and its remnants. The conflict began on 17 May 1980,[25] and from 1982 to 1997 the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement waged its own insurgency as a Marxist–Leninist rival to the Shining Path.

As fighting intensified in the 1980s, the Peruvian government had one of the worst human rights records in the Western Hemisphere; Peru experienced the most forced disappearances in the world during the period while the Peruvian Armed Forces acted with impunity throughout the conflict, sometimes massacring entire villages.[26] [27] It is estimated that there have been between 50,000 and 70,000 deaths, making it the bloodiest war in Peruvian history, since the European colonization of the country. The high death toll includes many civilian casualties, due to deliberate targeting by many factions. The Indigenous peoples of Peru were specifically targeted by killings, with 75% of those killed speaking Quechua as their native language. Since 2000, the number of deaths has dropped significantly and recently the conflict has become dormant.

There were low-level resurgences of violence in 2002 and 2014 when conflict erupted between the Peruvian Army and guerrilla remnants in the Valle de los Ríos Apurímac, Ene y Mantaro region. The conflict has lasted for over 40 years, making it the second longest internal conflict in the history of Latin America, after the Colombian conflict.

Background

See also: Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru). The first guerrilla outbreaks arose in Peru in the early 1960s, during the Moderate Civil Reform, when the Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR), a guerrilla group founded and led by Luis de la Puente Uceda, began its first attacks against the Peruvian State in 1962. However, despite their training in Fidel Castro's Cuba, the members of the MIR often were in an unstable state, as they were often based in the Amazon.[28] As a result, its members were easily killed by the police and the armed forces. During these counterattacks, their leader and founder was killed and the group eventually would collapse completely by 1965. Another guerrilla group that also emerged simultaneously was the National Liberation Army (ELN) led by Juan Pablo Chang Navarro and trained by Cuba.[29] It was made up of some former members of the MIR and other people who were recruited. However, this organization suffered the same fate as the MIR since many of its members were infected with leishmaniasis. As a result, the armed forces killed its members. The ELN received military training in Cuba and operated from 1962 to 1965. After its dismantling, its main leaders fled to Bolivia where they would fight alongside Che Guevara in the Ñancahuazú Guerrilla, where they would be assassinated while trying to establish a guerrilla focus in the Andes.

Prior to the conflict, Peru had undergone a series of coups with frequent switches between political parties and ideologies. On 2 October 1968,[30] General Juan Velasco Alvarado staged a military coup and became Peru's 56th president under the administration of the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces, left-leaning military dictatorship. Following a period of widespread poverty and unemployment, Velasco himself was overthrown in a bloodless military coup on 29 August 1975. He was replaced by Francisco Morales Bermúdez as the new President of Peru.[31]

Morales announced that his rule would provide a "Second Phase" to the previous administration, which would bring political and economic reforms.[32] However, he was unsuccessful in delivering these promises, and in 1978, a Constitutional Assembly was created to replace Peru's 1933 Constitution. Morales then proclaimed that national elections would be held by 1980.[33] Elections were held for the Constituent Assembly on 18 June 1978, whilst martial law was imposed on 6 January 1979. The Assembly approved the new constitution in July 1979. On 18 May 1980, Fernando Belaúnde Terry was elected president. Between February 1966 and July 1980 approximately 500 people died of political violence.[34]

Many affiliated with Peru's Communist Party had opposed the creation of the new constitution and formed the extremist organization known as the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path. This ultimately led to the emergence of internal conflict, with the first attacks taking place a day before the elections. Despite this, national elections continued and Fernando Belaúnde was elected as the 58th President of Peru in 1980. Belaúnde had already served as the country's 55th president prior to Velasco's coup in 1968.

The Shining Path

During the governments of Velasco and Morales, the Shining Path had been organized as a Maoist political group formed in 1970 by Abimael Guzmán, a communist professor of philosophy at the San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. Guzmán had been inspired by the Chinese Cultural Revolution which he had witnessed first-hand during a trip to China.[35] Shining Path members engaged in street fights with members of other political groups and painted graffiti encouraging an "armed struggle" against the Peruvian state.[36]

In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to official figures, but non-governmental estimates suggest several dozen deaths. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and the outbreak of the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path's actions.[37]

Course of the conflict

Belaúnde administration (1980–1985)

See also: Chuschi ballot burning incident. When Peru's military government allowed elections for the first time in 1980, the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path was one of the few leftist political groups that declined to take part. They opted instead to launch guerrilla warfare actions against the state in the province of Ayacucho. On 17 May 1980—the eve of the presidential elections—members of the Shining Path burned ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi, Ayacucho. The perpetrators were quickly caught and additional ballots were brought in to replace the burned ballots; the elections proceeded without any further incidents. The incident received very little attention in the Peruvian press.[38] A few days later, on 13 June, a group of young people belonging to the "generated organization" Movement of Labourers y Workers Clasistas (MOTC) carried out an attack on the Municipality of San Martín de Porres in Lima with Molotov cocktails commemorating the Chuschi incident.[39]

The Shining Path opted to fight in the manner advocated by Mao Zedong. They would open up "guerrilla zones" in which their guerrillas could operate and drive government forces out of these zones to create "liberated zones". These zones would then be used to support new guerrilla zones until the entire country was essentially a unified "liberated zone". There is some disagreement among scholars about the extent of Maoist influence on the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path, but the majority of scholars consider the Shining Path to be a violent Maoist organization. One of the factors contributing to support for this view among scholars is that the Shining Path's economic and political base were located primarily in rural areas and they sought to build up their influence in these areas.[40]

On 3 December 1982, the Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path officially formed an armed wing known as the "People's Guerrilla Army". The Peruvian guerrillas were peculiar in that they had a high proportion of women, 50 percent of the combatants and 40 percent of the commanders were women.[41]

Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement

See main article: Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement.

In 1982, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) also launched its own guerrilla war against the Peruvian state. The group had been formed by remnants of the Movement of the Revolutionary Left and identified with Castroite guerrilla movements in other parts of Latin America. The MRTA used techniques that were more traditional to Latin American leftist organizations, like wearing uniforms, claiming to fight for true democracy, and accusations of human rights abuses by the state; in contrast, the Shining Path did not wear uniforms, nor care for electoral processes.

During the conflict, the MRTA and the Shining Path engaged in combat with each other. The MRTA only played a small part in the overall conflict, being declared by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to have been responsible for 1.5 percent of casualties accumulated throughout the conflict. At its height, the MRTA was believed to have consisted of only a few hundred members.[42]

Belaúnde's response and massacres

President Fernando Belaúnde began the authoritarian trend of consolidating power within the executive to combat guerrilla groups, using his support in Congress to enact legislation and limit civil liberties. Gradually, the Shining Path committed more and more violent attacks on the National Police of Peru until bombings near Lima increased the gravity of the conflict. In December 1982, President Belaúnde declared a state of emergency and ordered that the Peruvian Armed Forces fight Shining Path, granting them extraordinary power. Military leadership adopted practices used by Argentina during the Dirty War, committing many human right violations in the area where it had political control, with entire villages being massacred by the Peruvian armed forces while hundreds of civilians were forcibly disappear by troops.[43] A special US-trained "counter terrorist" police battalion is known as the "Sinchis" became notorious in the 1980s for their violations of human rights.[44]

The Communist Party of Peru – Shining Path's reaction to the Peruvian government's use of the military in the conflict was to increase violent warfare in the countryside. Shining Path attacked police officers, soldiers, and civilians that it considered being "class enemies", often using gruesome methods of killing their victims. These killings, along with Shining Path's disrespect for the culture of indigenous peasants, turned many civilians in the Andes away from the group.

Faced with a hostile population, Shining Path's guerrilla campaigns began to falter. In some areas, fearful, well-off peasants formed anti-Shining Path patrols called rondas campesinas or simply Spanish; Castilian: rondas. They were generally poorly equipped despite donations of guns from the armed forces. Nevertheless, Shining Path guerrillas were attacked by the Spanish; Castilian: rondas. The first reported attack was near Huata in January 1983, where some Spanish; Castilian: rondas killed 13 guerrillas. In February 1983 in Sacsamarca, Spanish; Castilian: rondas stabbed and killed the Shining Path commanders of that area. In March 1983, Spanish; Castilian: rondas brutally killed Olegario Curitomay, one of the commanders of the town of Lucanamarca. They took him to the town square, stoned him, stabbed him, set him on fire, and finally shot him.[45] Shining Path responded by entering the province of Huancasancos and the towns of Yanaccollpa, Ataccara, Llacchua, Muylacruz, and Lucanamarca, where they killed 69 people. Other similar incidents followed, such as ones in Hauyllo, the Tambo District, and the La Mar Province. In the Ayacucho Department, Shining Path killed 47 peasants.[46] Additional massacres would culminate in August 1985, with the infamous Accomarca massacre perpetrated by Peruvian troops on 16 August 1985 and one in Marcas that was perpetrated by Shining Path on 29 August 1985.[47] [48]

García administration (1985–1990)

During the government of Alan García, rivalries between the National Police and the Armed Forces increased. In one 1989 incident in the Uchiza District, the Armed Forces ignored calls for assistance from the National Police despite being ten minutes away and having helicopters, resulting with the National Police post being captured by Shining Path.

Fujimori administration (1990–2000)

Under the administration of Alberto Fujimori, the state began its widespread use of intelligence agencies in the fight against Shining Path. Some atrocities were committed by the National Intelligence Service, notably the La Cantuta massacre, the Barrios Altos massacre and the Santa massacre. Under the government of Alberto Fujimori, the confrontation was waged mainly through bomb attacks and selective assassinations by the Shining Path. The government began to use death squads in order to combat and eliminate suspected communist sympathizers, including the Grupo Colina and Rodrigo Franco Command. These groups often committed human rights abuses throughout Peru. Fujimori's government also used the peasant rounds in order to combat the Shining Path and the MRTA in the rural countryside.

Events such as the "Asháninka holocaust" perpetrated by the Shining Path also occurred at this stage. The Peruvian government began a massive crackdown on the Shining Path using unused methods. Military personnel were dispatched to areas dominated by the Shining Path, especially Ayacucho, to fight the rebels. Ayacucho, Huancavelica, Apurímac and Huánuco were declared emergency zones, allowing for some constitutional rights to be suspended in those areas.[49]

On 5 April 1992, Fujimori made a self-coup with the aim of dissolving the opposition-controlled Congress of Peru[50] and replace the Judiciary branch.[51] The 1979 Constitution was abolished and a Constitutional crisis took place. Fujimori also announced that Peru would no longer be under the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

As Shining Path began to lose ground in the Andes to the Peruvian state and the Spanish; Castilian: rondas, it decided to speed up its overall strategic plan. Shining Path declared that it had reached "strategic equilibrium" and was ready to begin its final assault on the cities of Peru. In 1992, Shining Path set off a powerful bomb in the Miraflores District of Lima in what became known as the Tarata bombing. This was part of a larger bombing campaign to follow suit in Lima.

On 12 September 1992, Peruvian police captured Guzmán and several Shining Path leaders in an apartment above a dance studio in the Surquillo district of Lima. The police had been monitoring the apartment, as a number of suspected Shining Path militants had visited it. An inspection of the garbage of the apartment produced empty tubes of a skin cream used to treat psoriasis, a condition that Guzmán was known to have. Shortly after the raid that captured Guzmán, most of the remaining Shining Path leadership fell as well.[52]

Guzmán's role as the leader of Shining Path was taken over by Óscar Ramírez, who himself was captured by Peruvian authorities in 1999. After Ramírez's capture, the group splintered, guerrilla activity diminished sharply and previous conditions returned to the areas where the Shining Path had been active.[53] Some Shining Path and MRTA remnants managed to stage minor scale attacks, such as the January 1993 wave of attacks and political assassinations that occurred in the run-up to the municipal elections, which also targeted US interests; these included the bombing of two Coca-Cola plants on 22 January (by Shining Path); the RPG attack against the USIS Binational Center on 16 January; the bombing of a KFC restaurant on 21 January (both by the MRTA) and the car-bombing of the Peruvian headquarters of IBM on 28 January (by Shining Path).[54] On 27 July 1993, Shining Path militants drove a car bomb into the US Embassy in Lima, which left extensive damage on the complex (worth some US$250,000) and nearby buildings.[54]

As for the MRTA, its forces were decimated both by the Repentance Law and by the imprisonment of its main leaders; among them, its main leader Víctor Polay, who had escaped from prison in 1990 and was recaptured in 1992. In 1996, an armed commando of 14 members of the MRTA, led by Néstor Cerpa Cartolini, stormed the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Peru, beginning the crisis of 72 hostages that lasted 126 days. The MRTA demanded the release of 462 members of the insurgent group, imprisoned by the government to free the hostages, a demand emphatically rejected by the government. The crisis ended when the Peruvian armed forces recaptured the embassy in a military action called Operation Chavín de Huántar, which allowed the release of the hostages with the exception of Carlos Giusti Acuña, a member of the Supreme Court, who died in the exchange of shots with the subversive group. The final result was the death of the 14 subversive members, including their leader and two officers (Lieutenant Colonel Juan Valer Sandoval and Lieutenant Raúl Jiménez Chávez) who fell in combat; With this coup, the MRTA disappeared as an armed actor in the conflict.

Shining Path was confined to their former headquarters in the Peruvian jungle and continued smaller attacks against the military, like the one that occurred on 2 October 1999, when a Peruvian Army helicopter was shot down by Shining Path guerrillas near Satipo (killing 5) and stealing a PKM machine gun which was reportedly used in another attack against an Mi-17 in July 2003.[55]

Despite Shining Path being mostly defeated, more than 25% of Peru's national territory remained under a state of emergency until early 2000.[56]

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

Alberto Fujimori resigned the Presidency in 2000, but Congress declared him "morally unfit", installing the opposite congress member Valentín Paniagua into office. He rescinded Fujimori's announcement that Peru would leave the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR) to investigate the conflict. The commission was headed by the President of Catholic University Salomón Lerner Febres. The Commission found in its 2003 Final Report that 69,280 people died or disappeared between 1980 and 2000 as a result of the armed conflict.[57] A statistical analysis of the available data led the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to estimate that the Shining Path was responsible for the death or disappearance of 31,331 people, 45% of the total deaths and disappearances.[57] According to a summary of the report by Human Rights Watch, "Shining Path... killed about half the victims, and roughly one-third died at the hands of government security forces... The commission attributed some of the other slayings to a smaller guerrilla group and local militias. The rest remain unattributed."[58]

According the final report, rural areas were disproportionately affected by violence, especially those of indigenous communities. 75% of the people who were either killed or disappeared spoke Quechua as their native language, despite the fact that the 1993 census found that only 20% of Peruvians speak Quechua or another indigenous language as their native language.[59]

Nevertheless, the final report of the CVR was surrounded by controversy. It was criticized by almost all political parties[60] [61] (including former Presidents Fujimori,[62] García[63] and Paniagua[64]), the military and the Catholic Church,[65] which claimed that many of the Commission members were former members of extreme leftists movements and that the final report wrongfully portrayed Shining Path and the MRTA as "political parties" rather than as terrorist organizations,[66] even though, for example, Shining Path has been clearly designated as a terrorist organization by the United States, the European Union, and Canada.

A 2019 study disputed the casualty figures from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, estimating instead "a total of 48,000 killings, substantially lower than the TRC estimate" and concluding that "the Peruvian State accounts for a significantly larger share than the Shining Path."[67] [68]

Reemergence in the 21st century (2002–present)

Since 2002, there have been a number of incidents relating to internal conflict within Peru. On 20 March 2002, a car bomb exploded at "El Polo", a mall in a wealthy district of Lima near the U.S. embassy.[69] On 9 June 2003, a Shining Path group attacked a camp in Ayacucho, and took 68 employees of the Argentine company Techint and three police guards hostage. The hostages worked at the Camisea gas pipeline project that takes natural gas from Cuzco to Lima.[70] According to sources from Peru's Interior Ministry, the hostage-takers asked for a sizable ransom to free the hostages. Two days later, after a rapid military response, the hostage-takers abandoned the hostages. According to some sources, the company paid the ransom.[71]

In 2015, the U.S. Treasury Department declared the Shining Path a narco-terrorist organization engaged in the taxing of production, processing, and transport, of cocaine. The allegations of Shining Path drug trafficking had been made by the Peruvian government prior to the U.S. decree. This decree froze all Shining Path financial assets in the United States. U.S. Treasury official John Smith stated that the decree would help "the government of Peru's efforts to actively combat the group".[8]

Timeline

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. News: Shining Path Rebel Leader Is Captured in Peru . https://web.archive.org/web/20121104175528/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-614282.html . dead . 4 November 2012 . 9 September 2010 . 15 July 1999 . The Washington Post.
  2. After Chairman Gonzalo's capture in 1992, Comrade Feliciano assumed command of Shining Path until his capture in 14 July 1999, then Shining Path dissolved and retreated to VRAEM Valley.
  3. News: Americas | Profile: Peru's Shining Path . BBC News . 5 November 2004 . 15 August 2012.
  4. Web site: Perú y Colombia amplían cooperación en lucha contra terrorismo y narcotráfico . El Espectador . 4 June 2019 . 23 March 2010.
  5. Web site: Peru orders weapons from North Korea. UPI. 23 March 1988. 16 April 2021.
  6. Web site: Russia in the Western Hemisphere: Assessing Putin's Malign Influence in Latin America and the Caribbean . July 19, 2023. July 20, 2022 . CSIS.
  7. Web site: Mirada al pasado: Perú y España, lazos contra el terrorismo. Universidad Católica Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo. 21 April 2016. 22 September 2021.
  8. News: US designates Peru's Shining Path 'drug traffickers'. BBC News . 2 June 2015 . 2 June 2015.
  9. Web site: 2 December 2020. Autoridades de Perú capturan a 71 supuestos integrantes de Sendero Luminoso. 4 December 2020. CNN. es.
  10. Web site: Why are Hezbollah militias involved in Peru's violence?. 20 May 2016. 19 July 2023. Al Arabiya English.
  11. News: William. Rempel. William Rempel. Douglas. Frantz. Douglas Frantz. BCCI’s Arms Transactions for Arab Terrorist Revealed. Los Angeles Times. 30 September 1991. 20 July 2024.
  12. Maske, Mahesh. "Maovichar", in Studies in Nepali History and Society, Vol. 7, No. 2 (December 2002), p. 275.
  13. Web site: Gaddafi: a vicious, sinister despot driven out on tidal wave of hatred. The Guardian. 23 August 2011. 7 November 2020. Tisdall, Simon.
  14. Web site: La peligrosa red de Sendero Luminoso en Perú y el exterior. 2022-05-17. 2018-04-20. La Razón. es.
  15. Web site: Durmiendo con el enemigo EL MONTONERO. 2023-02-21. EL MONTONERO Primer Portal de opinión del país. es.
  16. Web site: "PERÚ EN LA MIRA DE HEZBOLÁ". 2023-02-21. 2021-06-18. El primer periódico digital del Perú. es.
  17. Web site: MRTA reivindica 13 atentados contra bancos y comisarías. LUM. 12 October 1986. 3 November 2022. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20221102135625/https://lum.cultura.pe/cdi/periodico/mrta-reivindica-13-atentados-contra-bancos-y-comisarias. 2 November 2022.
  18. Web site: Ex guerrilleros del FMLN vinculados al MRTA. LUM. 17 January 1997. 25 November 2022. Spanish.
  19. Web site: Movimientos terroristas: Sendero Luminoso y MRTA. Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 25 November 2022. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20220829170015/https://www.verdadyreconciliacionperu.com/admin/files/articulos/759_digitalizacion.pdf. 29 August 2022.
  20. Web site: Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement: Growing threat to US interests in Peru. CIA.gov. 28 March 1991. 7 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200801221822/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000393913.pdf. dead. 1 August 2020.
  21. http://www.larepublica.pe/politica/30/05/2009/peru-denunciara-sendero-luminoso-ante-la-onu-y-la-oea-por-utilizar-ninos Perú denunciará a Sendero Luminoso ante la ONU y la OEA por utilizar niños
  22. News: Hot Issue — On The Rebound: Shining Path Factions Vie for Control of Upper Huallaga Valley. The Jamestown Foundation. 18 October 2014.
  23. Web site: Final Report. Press Release. Truth and reconciliation commission.
  24. Web site: Gráfico: ¿qué fue la CVR y qué dijo su informe final?. RPP. 26 August 2016.
  25. Book: Starn . Orin . The Shining Path: Love, Madness, and Revolution in the Andes 1st Edition . W. W. Norton & Company . 9780393292817 . 30 April 2019 .
  26. Mauceri . Philip . Winter 1995 . State reform, coalitions, and the neoliberal 'autogolpe' in Peru . . 30 . 1. 7–37 . 10.1017/S0023879100017155 . 252749746 . free .
  27. Werlich . David P. . January 1987 . Debt, Democracy and Terrorism in Peru . . 86 . 516 . 29–32, 36–37. 10.1525/curh.1987.86.516.29 . 249689936 .
  28. Web site: Las guerrillas del MIR. 2022-09-17. lineadetiempo.iep.org.pe.
  29. Review of Lucha revolucionaria. Perú, 1958–1967. Kruijt. Dirk. 2014. Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe / European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies. 23972458 . 2022-09-17.
  30. Brands . Hal . 14 September 2010 . The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975 . Diplomacy & Statecraft. en. 21. 3. 471–490. 10.1080/09592296.2010.508418. 154119414 . 0959-2296.
  31. News: President of Peru Ousted In Coup Led by the Military. Hofmann. Paul. The New York Times . 30 August 1975 . 12 November 2018. en.
  32. Web site: Francisco Morales-Bermúdez Cerruti Facts. biography.yourdictionary.com. en. 12 November 2018.
  33. News: Peru's Military Regime Pledges Civilian Rule in 1980. Onis. Juan de. The New York Times . 29 July 1977 . 12 November 2018. en.
  34. Web site: 13. Peru (1912–present). uca.edu. en-US. 12 November 2018.
  35. Encyclopedia: Shining Path Peruvian revolutionary organization. Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 November 2018. en.
  36. Web site: Abimael Guzman and the Shining Path. Streissguth. Thomas. 5 November 2009. 12 November 2018.
  37. Luis Rossell, Rupay: historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008
  38. The Shining Path: A History of the Millenarian War in Peru. p. 17. Gorriti, Gustavo trans. Robin Kirk, The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill and London, 1999 .
  39. Web site: Relato visual del conflicto armado interno en el Perú, 1980–2000. 2022-09-17. Yuyanapaq. Para recordar.
  40. Jonathan R. White. Terrorism and Homeland Security, p240.
  41. https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2020/04/ZAMORA_YUSTI/61627 Género y conflicto armado en el Perú
  42. La Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación. Final Report. "General Conclusions." Available online. Accessed 3 February 2007.
  43. BBC News. "Peruvians seek relatives in mass grave." 12 June 2008. Available online. Retrieved 12 June 2008.
  44. Palmer, David Scott (2007). The revolutionary terrorism of Peru's Shining Path. In Martha Crenshaw, Ed. Terrorism in Context. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
  45. La Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación. "La Masacre de Lucanamarca (1983)." 28 August 2003. Available online in Spanish Accessed 1 February 2006.
  46. Amnesty International. "Peru: Human rights in a time of impunity." February 2006. Available online . Retrieved 24 September 2006.
  47. La Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación. "Ataque del PCP-SL a la Localidad de Marcas (1985)." Available online in Spanish Accessed 1 February 2006.
  48. La Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación. "Press Release 170." Available online Accessed 1 February 2006.
  49. News: Government Declares State of Emergency with Curfew in Lima. AP News. 7 February 1986. 4 February 2023.
  50. Web site: Peru court sentences coup backers. BBC. 27 November 2007.
  51. Web site: Peru: 27 years since the self-coup of 1992 . Andina Press. 4 June 2019.
  52. Rochlin, James F. Vanguard Revolutionaries in Latin America: Peru, Colombia, Mexico. p. 71. Lynne Rienner Publishers: Boulder and London, 2003. .
  53. Rochlin, James F. Vanguard Revolutionaries in Latin America: Peru, Colombia, Mexico. pp. 71–72. Lynne Rienner Publishers: Boulder and London, 2003. .
  54. Web site: United States Department of State.
  55. Web site: INVESTIGACIÓN | Sendero atacó helicóptero en el que viajaba general EP . agenciaperu.com . 15 August 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151023050446/http://agenciaperu.com/investigacion/2003/jul/helicoptero.htm . 23 October 2015 . dead .
  56. Book: Financial Times World Desk Reference. Heritage. Andrew. December 2002. Dorling Kindersley. 9780789488053. 462–465. Financial Times.
  57. Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación. Annex 2 Page 17. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
  58. Human Rights Watch. 28 August 2003. "Peru – Prosecutions Should Follow Truth Commission Report" . Retrieved 13 January 2008.
  59. Web site: CVR. Tomo VIII. Chapter 2. "El impacto diferenciado de la violencia" "2.1 VIOLENCIA Y DESIGUALDAD RACIAL Y ÉTNICA" . 131–132. 18 October 2014.
  60. http://www.agenciaperu.com/actualidad/2003/agos/cvr_reacciones.htm Agencia Perú – Reactions to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
  61. Web site: Frecuencia Latina – Xavier Barrón. Frecuencialatina.com.pe. 18 October 2014. 18 October 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141018211641/http://www.frecuencialatina.com.pe/90segundos/detalle.asp?Catid=68&NewsId=711. dead.
  62. News: BBC Mundo – Fujimori: "Sería ingenuo participar en este circo que la Comisión de la Verdad está montando". News.bbc.co.uk. 18 October 2014. 10 September 2002.
  63. http://www.agenciaperu.com/actualidad/2003/agos/garcia_cvrinf.htm Agencia Perú – Alan García: "Cifras obedecen a un juego de probabilidades"
  64. http://www.agenciaperu.com/actualidad/2003/jun/paniagua_cvr.htm Agencia Perú – Former President Valentín Paniagua: Shining Path and Political Parties are not the same
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