List of skin conditions explained

Many skin conditions affect the human integumentary system—the organ system covering the entire surface of the body and composed of skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands. The major function of this system is as a barrier against the external environment.[1] The skin weighs an average of four kilograms, covers an area of two square metres, and is made of three distinct layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The two main types of human skin are: glabrous skin, the hairless skin on the palms and soles (also referred to as the "palmoplantar" surfaces), and hair-bearing skin.[2] Within the latter type, the hairs occur in structures called pilosebaceous units, each with hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and associated arrector pili muscle.[3] In the embryo, the epidermis, hair, and glands form from the ectoderm, which is chemically influenced by the underlying mesoderm that forms the dermis and subcutaneous tissues.[4] [5] [6]

The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Nourishment is provided to these layers by diffusion from the dermis since the epidermis is without direct blood supply. The epidermis contains four cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the major component, constituting roughly 95 percent of the epidermis. This stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale, in which differentiating cells slowly displace outwards through the stratum spinosum to the stratum corneum, where cells are continually shed from the surface. In normal skin, the rate of production equals the rate of loss; about two weeks are needed for a cell to migrate from the basal cell layer to the top of the granular cell layer, and an additional two weeks to cross the stratum corneum.[7]

The dermis is the layer of skin between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissue, and comprises two sections, the papillary dermis and the reticular dermis.[8] The superficial papillary dermis interdigitates with the overlying rete ridges of the epidermis, between which the two layers interact through the basement membrane zone. Structural components of the dermis are collagen, elastic fibers, and ground substance. Within these components are the pilosebaceous units, arrector pili muscles, and the eccrine and apocrine glands. The dermis contains two vascular networks that run parallel to the skin surface—one superficial and one deep plexus—which are connected by vertical communicating vessels.[9] The function of blood vessels within the dermis is fourfold: to supply nutrition, to regulate temperature, to modulate inflammation, and to participate in wound healing.[10] [11]

The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat between the dermis and underlying fascia.[12] This tissue may be further divided into two components, the actual fatty layer, or panniculus adiposus, and a deeper vestigial layer of muscle, the panniculus carnosus. The main cellular component of this tissue is the adipocyte, or fat cell. The structure of this tissue is composed of septal (i.e. linear strands) and lobular compartments, which differ in microscopic appearance. Functionally, the subcutaneous fat insulates the body, absorbs trauma, and serves as a reserve energy source.

Conditions of the human integumentary system constitute a broad spectrum of diseases, also known as dermatoses, as well as many nonpathologic states (like, in certain circumstances, melanonychia and racquet nails).[13] [14] While only a small number of skin diseases account for most visits to the physician, thousands of skin conditions have been described. Classification of these conditions often presents many nosological challenges, since underlying etiologies and pathogenetics are often not known.[15] [16] Therefore, most current textbooks present a classification based on location (for example, conditions of the mucous membrane), morphology (chronic blistering conditions), etiology (skin conditions resulting from physical factors), and so on.[17] [18] Clinically, the diagnosis of any particular skin condition is made by gathering pertinent information regarding the presenting skin lesion(s), including the location (such as arms, head, legs), symptoms (pruritus, pain), duration (acute or chronic), arrangement (solitary, generalized, annular, linear), morphology (macules, papules, vesicles), and color (red, blue, brown, black, white, yellow).[19] Diagnosis of many conditions often also requires a skin biopsy which yields histologic information[20] [21] that can be correlated with the clinical presentation and any laboratory data.[22] [23] [24]

Acneiform eruptions

Acneiform eruptions are caused by changes in the pilosebaceous unit.[25] [26]

Autoinflammatory syndromes

Autoinflammatory syndromes are a group of inherited disorders characterized by bouts of inflammatory skin lesions and periodic fevers.[33] [34]

Chronic blistering

Chronic blistering cutaneous conditions have a prolonged course and present with vesicles and bullae.[36] [37] [38]

Conditions of the mucous membranes

Conditions of the mucous membranes involve the moist linings of the eyes, nose, mouth, genitals, and anus.[39]

Conditions of the skin appendages

Conditions of the skin appendages are those affecting the glands of the skin, hair, nails, and arrector pili muscles.[40] [41]

Conditions of the subcutaneous fat

Conditions of the subcutaneous fat are those affecting the layer of adipose tissue that lies between the dermis and underlying fascia.[42] [43] [44] [45]

Congenital anomalies

Cutaneous congenital anomalies are a diverse group of disorders that result from faulty morphogenesis, the biological process that forms the shape of a human body.[47] [48]

Connective tissue diseases

Connective tissue diseases are caused by a complex array of autoimmune responses that target or affect collagen or ground substance.[50]

Abnormalities of dermal fibrous and elastic tissue

Abnormalities of dermal fibrous and elastic tissue are caused by problems in the regulation of collagen synthesis or degradation.[51]

Dermal and subcutaneous growths

Dermal and subcutaneous growths result from (1) reactive or neoplastic proliferation of cellular components of the dermis or subcutaneous tissue, or (2) neoplasms invading or aberrantly present in the dermis.

Dermatitis

Dermatitis is a general term for "inflammation of the skin".[52]

Atopic

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic dermatitis associated with a hereditary tendency to develop allergies to food and inhalant substances.[53] [54] [55]

Contact

Contact dermatitis is caused by certain substances coming in contact with the skin.[56] [57] [58]

Eczema

Eczema refers to a broad range of conditions that begin as spongiotic dermatitis and may progress to a lichenified stage.[24] [59]

Pustular

Pustular dermatitis is an inflammation of the skin that presents with pustular lesions.[24] [60]

Seborrheic

Seborrheic dermatitis is a chronic, superficial, inflammatory disease characterized by scaling on an erythematous base.[61]

Disturbances of pigmentation

Disturbances of human pigmentation, either loss or reduction, may be related to loss of melanocytes or the inability of melanocytes to produce melanin or transport melanosomes correctly.[62] [63] [64]

Drug eruptions

Drug eruptions are adverse drug reactions that present with cutaneous manifestations.[65] [66] [67]

Endocrine-related

Endocrine conditions often present with cutaneous findings as the skin interacts with the endocrine system in many ways.[68] [69]

Eosinophilic

Eosinophilic cutaneous conditions encompass a wide variety of diseases that are characterized histologically by the presence of eosinophils in the inflammatory infiltrate, or evidence of eosinophil degranulation.[70] [71]

Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts

Epidermal nevi, neoplasms, and cysts are skin lesions that develop from the epidermal layer of the skin.[72] [24]

Erythemas

Erythemas are reactive skin conditions in which there is blanchable redness.

Genodermatoses

Genodermatoses are inherited genetic skin conditions often grouped into three categories: chromosomal, single gene, and polygenetic.[75] [76]

Infection-related

See also: Skin and skin structure infection.

Infection-related cutaneous conditions may be caused by bacteria, fungi, yeast, viruses, or parasites.[24] [77]

Bacterium-related

Bacterium-related cutaneous conditions often have distinct morphologic characteristics that may be an indication of a generalized systemic process or simply an isolated superficial infection.[78]

Mycobacterium-related

Mycobacterium-related cutaneous conditions are caused by Mycobacterium infections.[79]

Mycosis-related

Mycosis-related cutaneous conditions are caused by fungi or yeasts, and may present as either a superficial or deep infection of the skin, hair, or nails.

Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites

Parasitic infestations, stings, and bites in humans are caused by several groups of organisms belonging to the following phyla: Annelida, Arthropoda, Bryozoa, Chordata, Cnidaria, Cyanobacteria, Echinodermata, Nemathelminthes, Platyhelminthes, and Protozoa.[80]

Virus-related

Virus-related cutaneous conditions are caused by two main groups of viruses–DNA and RNA types–both of which are obligatory intracellular parasites.[81]

Lichenoid eruptions

Lichenoid eruptions are dermatoses related to the unique, common inflammatory disorder lichen planus, which affects the skin, mucous membranes, nails, and hair.[82] [83] [84]

Lymphoid-related

Lymphoid-related cutaneous conditions are a group of disorders characterized by collections of lymphocyte cells within the skin.[85]

Melanocytic nevi and neoplasms

Melanocytic nevi and neoplasms are caused by either a proliferation of (1) melanocytes, or (2) nevus cells, a form of melanocyte that lack dendritic processes.[86] [87]

Melanoma

Melanoma is a malignant proliferation of melanocytes and the most aggressive type of skin cancer.[88] [89] [90]

Monocyte- and macrophage-related

Monocyte- and macrophage-related cutaneous conditions are characterized histologically by infiltration of the skin by monocyte or macrophage cells, often divided into several categories, including granulomatous disease,[91] histiocytoses,[92] and sarcoidosis.[93]

Mucinoses

Mucinoses are a group of conditions caused by dermal fibroblasts producing abnormally large amounts of mucopolysaccharides.

Neurocutaneous

Neurocutaneous conditions are due organic nervous system disease or are psychiatric in etiology.[94] [95]

Noninfectious immunodeficiency-related

Noninfectious immunodeficiency-related cutaneous conditions are caused by T-cell or B-cell dysfunction.[96] [97]

Nutrition-related

Nutrition-related cutaneous conditions are caused by malnutrition due to an improper or inadequate diet.[98] [99]

Papulosquamous hyperkeratotic

Papulosquamous hyperkeratotic cutaneous conditions are those that present with papules and scales caused by a thickening of the stratum corneum.

Palmoplantar keratodermas

Palmoplantar keratodermas are a diverse group of hereditary and acquired keratodermas in which there is hyperkeratosis of the skin of the palms and soles.[100]

Pregnancy-related

Pregnancy-related cutaneous conditions are a group of skin changes observed during pregnancy.[101] [102]

Pruritic

Pruritus, commonly known as itchiness, is a sensation exclusive to the skin, and characteristic of many skin conditions.[103] [104]

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common, chronic, and recurrent inflammatory disease of the skin characterized by circumscribed, erythematous, dry, scaling plaques.[105] [106] [107]

Reactive neutrophilic

Reactive neutrophilic cutaneous conditions constitute a spectrum of disease mediated by neutrophils, and typically associated with underlying diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and hematologic malignancy.[108] [109]

Recalcitrant palmoplantar eruptions

Recalcitrant palmoplantar eruptions are skin conditions of the palms and soles which are resistant to treatment.

Resulting from errors in metabolism

Skin conditions resulting from errors in metabolism are caused by enzymatic defects that lead to an accumulation or deficiency of various cellular components, including, but not limited to, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Resulting from physical factors

Skin conditions resulting from physical factors occur from a number of causes, including, but not limited to, hot and cold temperatures, friction, and moisture.[110] [111]

Ionizing radiation-induced

Ionizing radiation-induced cutaneous conditions result from exposure to ionizing radiation.[112]

Urticaria and angioedema

Urticaria is a vascular reaction of the skin characterized by the appearance of wheals, which are firm, elevated swellings of the skin.[113] Angioedema, which can occur alone or withurticaria, is characterized by a well-defined, edematous swelling that involves subcutaneous tissues, abdominal organs, or upper airway.[114]

Vascular-related

Vascular-related cutaneous conditions result from dysfunction of the blood or blood vessels in the dermis, or lymphatics in the subcutaneous tissues.[115] [116]

See also

Footnotes

  1. Lippens S, Hoste E, Vandenabeele P, Agostinis P, Declercq W. Cell death in the skin . Apoptosis . 14 . 4 . 549–69 . April 2009 . 19221876 . 10.1007/s10495-009-0324-z. 13058619 .
  2. Burns, Tony; et al. (2006) Rook's Textbook of Dermatology CD-ROM. Wiley-Blackwell. .
  3. Paus R, Cotsarelis G. The biology of hair follicles . N Engl J Med . 341 . 7 . 491–7 . 1999 . 10441606 . 10.1056/NEJM199908123410706 . 35532108 .
  4. Book: Goldsmith, Lowell A. . Biochemistry and physiology of the skin . Oxford University Press . 1983 . 978-0-19-261253-3 .
  5. Fuchs E . Scratching the surface of skin development . Nature . 445 . 7130 . 834–42 . February 2007 . 17314969 . 2405926 . 10.1038/nature05659 . 2007Natur.445..834F .
  6. Fuchs E, Horsley V. More than one way to skin . Genes Dev. . 22 . 8 . 976–85 . April 2008 . 18413712 . 2732395 . 10.1101/gad.1645908 .
  7. Book: Bolognia, Jean L . Dermatology . Mosby . St. Louis . 2007 . 978-1-4160-2999-1 . etal.
  8. Book: Rapini, Ronald P . Practical dermatopathology . registration . Elsevier Mosby . 2005 . 978-0-323-01198-3 .
  9. Book: Grant-Kels JM . Color Atlas of Dermatopathology (Dermatology: Clinical & Basic Science) . Informa Healthcare . 2007 . 163 . 978-0-8493-3794-9 .
  10. Book: Ryan, T . Cutaneous Circulation . Goldsmith . Lowell A . Physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology of the skin . Oxford University Press . New York . 2nd . 1991 . 1019 . 978-0-19-505612-9 .
  11. Swerlick RA, Lawley TJ. Role of microvascular endothelial cells in inflammation . J. Invest. Dermatol. . 100 . 1 . 111S–115S . January 1993 . 8423379 . 10.1038/jid.1993.33. free .
  12. Book: Lynch, Peter J . Dermatology . Williams & Wilkins . 1994 . 978-0-683-05252-7 .
  13. King, LS . What Is Disease? . Philosophy of Science . 21 . 3. 193–203 . 1954 . 10.1086/287343. 120875348 .
  14. Book: Bluefarb, Samuel M . Dermatology . Upjohn Co . 1984 . 978-0-89501-004-9 . registration .
  15. Tilles G, Wallach D. [The history of nosology in dermatology] . fr . Ann Dermatol Venereol . 116 . 1 . 9–26 . 1989 . 2653160 .
  16. Lambert WC, Everett MA. The nosology of parapsoriasis . J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. . 5 . 4 . 373–95 . October 1981 . 7026622 . 10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70100-2.
  17. Jackson R . Historical outline of attempts to classify skin diseases . Can Med Assoc J . 116 . 10 . 1165–68 . 1977 . 324589 . 1879511 .
  18. Copeman PW . The creation of global dermatology . J R Soc Med . 88 . 2 . 78–84 . February 1995 . 7769599 . 1295100 .
  19. Book: Fitzpatrick, Thomas B . Klauss Wolff . Wolff, Klaus Dieter . Johnson, Richard R. . Suurmond, Dick . Richard Suurmond . Fitzpatrick's color atlas and synopsis of clinical dermatology . McGraw-Hill Medical Pub. Division . 2005 . 978-0-07-144019-6 .
  20. Werner B . [Skin biopsy and its histopathologic analysis: Why? What for? How? Part I] . pt . An Bras Dermatol . 84 . 4 . 391–5 . August 2009 . 19851671 . 10.1590/S0365-05962009000400010. free .
  21. Werner B . [Skin biopsy with histopathologic analysis: why? what for? how? part II] . pt . An Bras Dermatol . 84 . 5 . 507–13 . October 2009 . 20098854 . 10.1590/S0365-05962009000500010. free .
  22. Book: Xiaowei Xu . Elder, David A . Rosalie Elenitsas . Johnson, Bernett L . Murphy, George E . Lever's Histopathology of the Skin . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . Hagerstwon, MD . 2008 . 978-0-7817-7363-8 .
  23. Book: Weedon's Skin Pathology, 2-Volume Set: Expert Consult - Online and Print . Churchill Livingstone . Edinburgh . 2009 . 978-0-7020-3941-6 .
  24. Book: David J DiCaudo . Dirk Elston MD . Dirk M Elston . Tammie Ferringer . Christine J Ko . Christine Ko MD . Steven Peckham . Whitney A High . Dermatopathology . Saunders . Philadelphia . 2009 . 978-0-7020-3023-9 .
  25. Rustin MH . Dermatology . Postgrad Med J . 66 . 781 . 894–905 . 1990 . 2148371 . 2429766 . 10.1136/pgmj.66.781.894 .
  26. Feldman S, Careccia RE, Barham KL, Hancox J. Diagnosis and treatment of acne . Am Fam Physician . 69 . 9 . 2123–30 . 2004 . 15152959.
  27. Any given cutaneous condition is only included once within this list.
  28. [Bracket#Parentheses|Parentheticals]
  29. Citations for any given condition name and/or alternative name(s) may be found within the condition's respective article.
  30. This list uses American English; therefore, the symbols æ and œ, which are common to British English, are not used, but, rather, simplified to a single e. For example, the spelling of nevus is favored over nævus, edema over œdema, and so forth. For more information, see American and British English differences.
  31. Non-English names are included within this list when those terms are found in English medical literature. Inclusion of acne excoriée des jeunes filles (French), Frambösie (German), and parangi (Malay) represent examples of this convention.
  32. Abbreviations for condition names commonly described in medical literature with an acronym or initialism are included within this list.
  33. Fietta P . Autoinflammatory diseases: the hereditary periodic fever syndromes . Acta Biomed . 75 . 2 . 92–9 . 2004 . 15481697 .
  34. Centola M, Aksentijevich I, Kastner DL. The hereditary periodic fever syndromes: molecular analysis of a new family of inflammatory diseases . Hum Mol Genet . 7 . 10 . 1581–8 . 1998 . 9735379 . 10.1093/hmg/7.10.1581 . free .
  35. Within this list, the term immunoglobulin is abbreviated to Ig when used as a prefix to a specific antibody isotype (i.e. IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM).
  36. Book: Chan . Lawrence S . Blistering Skin Diseases . 30 March 2009 . Manson Publishing Ltd . 1 . 978-1-84076-066-8 .
  37. Yeh SW, Ahmed B, Sami N, Razzaque Ahmed A. Blistering disorders: diagnosis and treatment . Dermatol Ther . 16 . 3 . 214–23 . 2003 . 14510878 . 10.1046/j.1529-8019.2003.01631.x . free .
  38. Eming R, Hertl M. Autoimmune bullous disorders . Clin Chem Lab Med . 44 . 2 . 144–9 . 2006 . 16475898 . 10.1515/CCLM.2006.027 . Autoimmune Diagnostics Working Group . 24967692 . free .
  39. Book: James, William D . Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology . Saunders Elsevier . 2006 . 978-0-7216-2921-6 . etal.
  40. Book: Miller, Jeffrey H . Marks, James G . Lookingbill and Marks' Principles of Dermatology . Saunders . 2006 . 978-1-4160-3185-7 .
  41. Book: Christine J Ko . Schwarzenberger, Kathryn . Werchniak, Andrew E . General dermatology . Saunders . Philadelphia . 2009 . 978-0-7020-3093-2 .
  42. Aronson IK, Tharp MD. Diagnosis and Treatment of Panniculitis . Dermatologic Therapy . 23 . 4 . 317–434 . 2010 . 20666818. 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2010.01331.x. 221647926 . 1529-8019.
  43. Requena L, Yus ES. Panniculitis. Part I. Mostly septal panniculitis . J Am Acad Dermatol . 45 . 2 . 163–83; quiz 184–6 . 2001 . 11464178 . 10.1067/mjd.2001.114736 .
  44. Requena L, Sánchez Yus E. Panniculitis. Part II. Mostly lobular panniculitis . J Am Acad Dermatol . 45 . 3 . 325–61; quiz 362–64 . 2001 . 11511831 . 10.1067/mjd.2001.114735 . 4824297 .
  45. Phelps RG, Shoji T. Update on panniculitis . Mt Sinai J Med . 68 . 4–5 . 262–7 . 2001 . 11514913 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090214234332/http://mssm.edu/msjournal/68/6845262.shtml . 14 February 2009.
  46. Within this list, the terms human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome are abbreviated to HIV and AIDS, respectively.
  47. Küster W, Traupe H. [Clinical aspects and genetics of congenital skin defects] . de . Hautarzt . 39 . 9 . 553–63 . September 1988 . 3053531 .
  48. Book: Andrea L. Zaenglein . MD, Howard Gimbel . Albert C Yan . Pediatric Dermatology: Requisites in Dermatology . Saunders Ltd . 2008 . 978-0-7020-3022-2 .
  49. Familial Disseminated Comedones without Dyskeratosis: Report of an Affected Family and Review of the Literature. Mao-Jie. Cheng. Wen-Chieh. Chen. Rudolf. Happle. Zhi-Qiang. Song. 8 May 2014. Dermatology. 228. 4. 303–306. Silverchair. 10.1159/000360818. 24819025 .
  50. Book: Crofford, Leslie J . Klippel, John H . Weyand, Cornelia M . Stone, John F . Primer on the rheumatic diseases . Arthritis Foundation . Atlanta, GA . 2001 . 978-0-912423-29-6 .
  51. Ushiki T . Collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. A comprehensive understanding from a morphological viewpoint . Arch Histol Cytol . 65 . 2 . 109–26 . 2002 . 12164335 . 10.1679/aohc.65.109. free .
  52. Alsaad KO, Ghazarian D. My approach to superficial inflammatory dermatoses . J Clin Pathol . 58 . 12 . 1233–41 . 2005 . 16311340 . 1770784 . 10.1136/jcp.2005.027151 .
  53. Wüthrich B, Cozzio A, Roll A, Senti G, Kündig T, Schmid-Grendelmeier P. Atopic eczema: genetics or environment? . Ann Agric Environ Med . 14 . 2 . 195–201 . 2007 . 18247450.
  54. Roosterman D, Goerge T, Schneider SW, Bunnett NW, Steinhoff M. Neuronal control of skin function: the skin as a neuroimmunoendocrine organ . Physiol Rev . 86 . 4 . 1309–79 . 2006 . 17015491 . 10.1152/physrev.00026.2005 . 23288191 .
  55. Spergel JM . From atopic dermatitis to asthma: the atopic march . Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. . 105 . 2 . 99–106; quiz 107–9, 117 . August 2010 . 20674819 . 10.1016/j.anai.2009.10.002 .
  56. Saint-Mezard P, Rosieres A, Krasteva M . Allergic contact dermatitis . Eur J Dermatol . 14 . 5 . 284–95 . 2004 . 15358566 . etal.
  57. Krasteva M, Kehren J, Sayag M . Contact dermatitis II. Clinical aspects and diagnosis . Eur J Dermatol . 9 . 2 . 144–59 . 1999 . 10066966 . etal.
  58. Sharma VK, Asati DP. Pediatric contact dermatitis . Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol . 76 . 5 . 514–20 . 2010 . 20826990 . 10.4103/0378-6323.69070 . free .
  59. Buxton PK . ABC of dermatology. Eczema and dermatitis . Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) . 295 . 6605 . 1048–51 . 1987 . 3120868 . 1248082 . 10.1136/bmj.295.6605.1048 .
  60. Mengesha YM, Bennett ML. Pustular skin disorders: diagnosis and treatment . Am J Clin Dermatol . 3 . 6 . 389–400 . 2002 . 12113648 . 10.2165/00128071-200203060-00003 . 30574470 .
  61. Schwartz RA, Janusz CA, Janniger CK. Seborrheic dermatitis: an overview . Am Fam Physician . 74 . 1 . 125–30 . 2006 . 16848386.
  62. Costin GE, Hearing VJ. Human skin pigmentation: melanocytes modulate skin color in response to stress . FASEB J . 21 . 4 . 976–94 . 2007 . 17242160 . 10.1096/fj.06-6649rev . free . 10713500 .
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  75. Book: Joel L. Spitz . Genodermatoses: a clinical guide to genetic skin disorders . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . 2005 . 978-0-7817-4088-3 .
  76. McLean WH . Genetic disorders of palm skin and nail . J Anat . 202 . 1 . 133–41 . 2003 . 12587928 . 1571049 . 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00141.x . Epithelial Genetics . Group .
  77. Book: Habif, Thomas P. . Skin disease: diagnosis and treatment . Mosby . 2001 . 978-0-8151-3762-7 .
  78. Stulberg DL, Penrod MA, Blatny RA . Common bacterial skin infections . Am Fam Physician . 66 . 1 . 119–24 . 2002 . 12126026 . 30 June 2009 . 29 September 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104522/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020701/119.html . dead .
  79. Frankel A, Penrose C, Emer J. Cutaneous tuberculosis: a practical case report and review for the dermatologist . J Clin Aesthet Dermatol . 2 . 10 . 19–27 . October 2009 . 20725570 . 2923933 .
  80. Diaz JH . Mite-transmitted dermatoses and infectious diseases in returning travelers . J Travel Med . 17 . 1 . 21–31 . 2010 . 20074098 . 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2009.00352.x . free .
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  85. Connors JM, Hsi ED, Foss FM. Lymphoma of the skin . Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program . 2002. 1. 263–82 . 2002 . 12446427 . 10.1182/asheducation-2002.1.263 . 29810336 . free .
  86. Book: Alan N Houghton . Balch, Charles M. . Cutaneous melanoma . J.B. Lippincott . 1992 . 978-0-397-51052-8 . registration .
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