Inconel Explained

Inconel is a nickel-chromium-based superalloy often utilized in extreme environments where components are subjected to high temperature, pressure or mechanical loads. Inconel alloys are oxidation- and corrosion-resistant. When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally-induced crystal vacancies. Inconel's high-temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation hardening, depending on the alloy.[1] [2]

Inconel alloys are typically used in high temperature applications. Common trade names for various Inconel alloys include:

History

The Inconel family of alloys was first developed before December 1932, when its trademark was registered by the US company International Nickel Company of Delaware and New York.[5] [6] A significant early use was found in support of the development of the Whittle jet engine,[7] during the 1940s by research teams at Henry Wiggin & Co of Hereford, England a subsidiary of the Mond Nickel Company,[8] which merged with Inco in 1928. The Hereford Works and its properties including the Inconel trademark were acquired in 1998 by Special Metals Corporation.[9]

Specific data

AlloySolidus °C (°F)Liquidus °C (°F)
Inconel 600[10] 1354 (1354C)1413 (1413C)
Inconel 617[11] [12] 1332 (1332C)1377 (1377C)
Inconel 625[13] 1290 (1290C)1350 (1350C)
Inconel 690[14] 1343 (1343C)1377 (1377C)
Inconel 718[15] 1260 (1260C)1336 (1336C)
Inconel X-750[16] 1390 (1390C)1430 (1430C)

Composition

Inconel alloys vary widely in their compositions, but all are predominantly nickel, with chromium as the second element.

InconelElement, proportion by mass (%)
NiCrFeMoNb & TaCoMnCuAlTiSiCSPB
600[17] ≥72.014.0–17.06.0–10.0≤1.0≤0.5≤0.5≤0.15≤0.015
617[18] 44.2–61.020.0–24.0≤3.08.0–10.010.0–15.0≤0.5≤0.50.8–1.5≤0.6≤0.50.05–0.15≤0.015≤0.015≤0.006
625[19] ≥58.020.0–23.0≤5.08.0–10.03.15–4.15≤1.0≤0.5≤0.4≤0.4≤0.5≤0.1≤0.015≤0.015
690[20] ≥5827–317–11≤0.50≤0.50≤0.50≤0.05≤0.015
Nuclear grade 690≥5828–317–11≤0.10≤0.50≤0.50≤0.50≤0.04≤0.015
71850.0–55.017.0–21.02.8–3.34.75–5.5≤1.0≤0.35≤0.30.2–0.80.65–1.15≤0.35≤0.08≤0.015≤0.015≤0.006
X-750[21] ≥70.014.0–17.05.0–9.00.7–1.2≤1.0≤1.0≤0.50.4–1.02.25–2.75≤0.5≤0.08≤0.01

Properties

When heated, Inconel forms a thick and stable passivating oxide layer protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature applications where aluminium and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally induced crystal vacancies (see Arrhenius equation). Inconel's high temperature strength is developed by solid solution strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy. In age-hardening or precipitation-strengthening varieties, small amounts of niobium combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound Ni3Nb or gamma double prime (γ″). Gamma prime forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and creep effectively at elevated temperatures. The formation of gamma-prime crystals increases over time, especially after three hours of a heat exposure of 850C, and continues to grow after 72 hours of exposure.[22]

Strengthening mechanisms

The most prevalent hardening mechanisms for Inconel alloys are precipitate strengthening and solid solution strengthening. In Inconel alloys, one of the two often dominates. For alloys like Inconel 718, precipitate strengthening is the main strengthening mechanism. The majority of strengthening comes from the presence of gamma double prime (γ″) precipitates.[23] [24] [25] [26] Inconel alloys have a γ matrix phase with an FCC structure.[27] [28] [29] γ″ precipitates are made of Ni and Nb, specifically with a Ni3Nb composition. These precipitates are fine, coherent, disk-shaped, intermetallic particles with a tetragonal structure.[30] [31] [32] [33]

Secondary precipitate strengthening comes from gamma prime (γ') precipitates. The γ' phase can appear in multiple compositions such as Ni3(Al, Ti). The precipitate phase is coherent and has an FCC structure, like the γ matrix; The γ' phase is much less prevalent than γ″. The volume fraction of the γ″ and γ' phases are approximately 15% and 4% after precipitation, respectively. Because of the coherency between the γ matrix and the γ' and γ″ precipitates, strain fields exist that obstruct the motion of dislocations. The prevalence of carbides with MX(Nb, Ti)(C, N) compositions also helps to strengthen the material. For precipitate strengthening, elements like niobium, titanium, and tantalum play a crucial role.[34]

Because the γ″ phase is metastable, over-aging can result in the transformation of γ″ phase precipitates to delta (δ) phase precipitates, their stable counterparts. The δ phase has an orthorhombic structure, a Ni3(Nb, Mo, Ti) composition, and is incoherent.[35] As a result, the transformation of γ″ to δ in Inconel alloys leads to the loss of coherency strengthening, making for a weaker material. That being said, in appropriate quantities, the δ phase is responsible for grain boundary pinning and strengthening.

Another common phase in Inconel alloys is the Laves intermetallic phase. Its compositions are (Ni, Cr, Fe)x(Nb, Mo, Ti)y and NiyNb, it is brittle, and its presence can be detrimental to the mechanical behavior of Inconel alloys.[36] Sites with large amounts of Laves phase are prone to crack propagation because of their higher potential for stress concentration. Additionally, due to its high Nb, Mo, and Ti content, the Laves phase can exhaust the matrix of these elements, ultimately making precipitate and solid-solution strengthening more difficult.

For alloys like Inconel 625, solid-solution hardening is the main strengthening mechanism. Elements like Mo are important in this process. Nb and Ta can also contribute to solid solution strengthening to a lesser extent. In solid solution strengthening, Mo atoms are substituted into the γ matrix of Inconel alloys. Because Mo atoms have a significantly larger radius than those of Ni (209 pm and 163 pm, respectively), the substitution creates strain fields in the crystal lattice, which hinder the motion of dislocations, ultimately strengthening the material.

The combination of elemental composition and strengthening mechanisms is why Inconel alloys can maintain their favorable mechanical and physical properties, such as high strength and fatigue resistance, at elevated temperatures, specifically those up to 650°C.

Machining

Inconel is a difficult metal to shape and to machine using traditional cold forming techniques due to rapid work hardening. After the first machining pass, work hardening tends to plastically deform either the workpiece or the tool on subsequent passes. For this reason, age-hardened Inconels such as 718 are typically machined using an aggressive but slow cut with a hard tool, minimizing the number of passes required. Alternatively, the majority of the machining can be performed with the workpiece in a "solutionized" form, with only the final steps being performed after age hardening. However some claim that Inconel can be machined extremely quickly with very fast spindle speeds using a multifluted ceramic tool with small width of cut at high feed rates as this causes localized heating and softening in front of the flute.

External threads are machined using a lathe to "single-point" the threads or by rolling the threads in the solution treated condition (for hardenable alloys) using a screw machine. Inconel 718 can also be roll-threaded after full aging by using induction heat to 700C without increasing the grain size. Holes with internal threads are made by threadmilling. Internal threads can also be formed using a sinker electrical discharge machining (EDM).

Joining

Welding of some Inconel alloys (especially the gamma prime precipitation hardened family; e.g., Waspaloy and X-750) can be difficult due to cracking and microstructural segregation of alloying elements in the heat-affected zone. However, several alloys such as 625 and 718 have been designed to overcome these problems. The most common welding methods are gas tungsten arc welding and electron-beam welding.[37]

Uses

Inconel is often encountered in extreme environments. It is common in gas turbine blades, seals, and combustors, as well as turbocharger rotors and seals, electric submersible well pump motor shafts, high temperature fasteners, chemical processing and pressure vessels, heat exchanger tubing, steam generators and core components in nuclear pressurized water reactors,[38] natural gas processing with contaminants such as H2S and CO2, firearm sound suppressor blast baffles, and Formula One, NASCAR, NHRA, and APR, LLC exhaust systems.[39] [40] It is also used in the turbo system of the 3rd generation Mazda RX7, and the exhaust systems of high powered Wankel engine and Norton motorcycles where exhaust temperatures reach more than 1000C.[41] Inconel is increasingly used in the boilers of waste incinerators.[42] The Joint European Torus and DIII-D tokamaks' vacuum vessels are made of Inconel.[43] Inconel 718 is commonly used for cryogenic storage tanks, downhole shafts, wellhead parts,[44] and in the aerospace industry -- where it has become a prime candidate material for constructing heat resistant turbines.[45]

Aerospace

Automotive

Notes and References

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  7. Web site: Jones. T.L.. Frank Whittle's W2B Turbojet: United Kingdom versus United States Development. EngineHistory.org. Aircraft Engine Historical Society, Inc. 27 March 2016. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20160330052504/http://enginehistory.org/GasTurbines/W2B.shtml. 30 March 2016.
  8. Book: Annual Report on the Mineral Production of Canada . 1932 . Canada. Dominion Bureau of Statistics . 88.
  9. Web site: Special Metals Corporation: History . 2012-05-18 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080421064350/http://www.specialmetals.com/history.php . April 21, 2008 .
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  14. Web site: Inconel 690 Alloy . American Elements .
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  17. http://www.specialmetals.com/assets/smc/documents/alloys/inconel/inconel-alloy-600.pdf Inconel alloy 600
  18. http://www.hightempmetals.com/techdata/hitempInconel617data.php hightempmetals.com
  19. https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090226220715/http://www.specialmetals.com/documents/Inconel%20alloy%20625.pdf Inconel alloy 625
  20. http://www.specialmetals.com/assets/smc/documents/alloys/inconel/inconel-alloy-690.pdf Inconel alloy 690
  21. http://www.specialmetals.com/assets/smc/documents/alloys/inconel/inconel-alloy-x-750.pdf Inconel alloy X-750
  22. Web site: DoITPoMS - Full Record. www.doitpoms.ac.uk.
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  27. Tucho . Wakshum M. . Cuvillier . Priscille . Sjolyst-Kverneland . Atle . Hansen . Vidar . 2017-03-24 . Microstructure and hardness studies of Inconel 718 manufactured by selective laser melting before and after solution heat treatment . Materials Science and Engineering: A . en . 689 . 220–232 . 10.1016/j.msea.2017.02.062 . 0921-5093.
  28. Yu . Xiaobin . Lin . Xin . Tan . Hua . Hu . Yunlong . Zhang . Shuya . Liu . Fencheng . Yang . Haiou . Huang . Weidong . 2021-02-01 . Microstructure and fatigue crack growth behavior of Inconel 718 superalloy manufactured by laser directed energy deposition . International Journal of Fatigue . en . 143 . 106005 . 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2020.106005 . 0142-1123.
  29. Jambor . Michal . Bokůvka . Otakar . Nový . František . Trško . Libor . Belan . Juraj . 2017-06-01 . Phase Transformations in Nickel base Superalloy Inconel 718 during Cyclic Loading at High Temperature . Production Engineering Archives . en . 15 . 15 . 15–18 . 10.30657/pea.2017.15.04. free .
  30. Bennett . Jennifer . Glerum . Jennifer . Cao . Jian . 2021-01-01 . Relating additively manufactured part tensile properties to thermal metrics . CIRP Annals . en . 70 . 1 . 187–190 . 10.1016/j.cirp.2021.04.053 . 0007-8506.
  31. Li . Zuo . Chen . Jing . Sui . Shang . Zhong . Chongliang . Lu . Xufei . Lin . Xin . 2020-01-01 . The microstructure evolution and tensile properties of Inconel 718 fabricated by high-deposition-rate laser directed energy deposition . Additive Manufacturing . en . 31 . 100941 . 10.1016/j.addma.2019.100941 . 2214-8604.
  32. Glerum . Jennifer . Bennett . Jennifer . Ehmann . Kornel . Cao . Jian . 2021-05-01 . Mechanical properties of hybrid additively manufactured Inconel 718 parts created via thermal control after secondary treatment processes . Journal of Materials Processing Technology . en . 291 . 117047 . 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117047 . 0924-0136.
  33. Deng . Dunyong . Peng . Ru Lin . Brodin . Håkan . Moverare . Johan . 2018-01-24 . Microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 produced by selective laser melting: Sample orientation dependence and effects of post heat treatments . Materials Science and Engineering: A . en . 713 . 294–306 . 10.1016/j.msea.2017.12.043 . 0921-5093.
  34. Web site: Aeether Co Limited . What is Solid Solution? Why do Nickel Alloy / Superalloy need Solution Treatment? . 2023-05-08 . aeether.com . en.
  35. Wang . Yachao . Shi . Jing . 2019-12-01 . Microstructure and Properties of Inconel 718 Fabricated by Directed Energy Deposition with In-Situ Ultrasonic Impact Peening . Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B . en . 50 . 6 . 2815–2827 . 10.1007/s11663-019-01672-3 . 2019MMTB...50.2815W . 1543-1916.
  36. Sohrabi . Mohammad Javad . Mirzadeh . Hamed . Rafiei . Mohsen . 2018-08-01 . Solidification behavior and Laves phase dissolution during homogenization heat treatment of Inconel 718 superalloy . Vacuum . en . 154 . 235–243 . 10.1016/j.vacuum.2018.05.019 . 2018Vacuu.154..235S . 0042-207X.
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  38. Web site: Inconel alloy 625, Specials Metals, 2015. https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090226220715/http://www.specialmetals.com/documents/Inconel%20alloy%20625.pdf. dead. 2009-02-26.
  39. http://www.specialmetals.com/power.php Power Generation
  40. http://www.specialmetals.com/chemical.php Chemical Processing
  41. Motorcycle Trader.Norton Rotary Revival.Cathcart.Dec 2007.
  42. http://www.volund.dk/content/download/531/2353/file/Inconel_eng_pdf.pdf Inconell – state-of-the-art corrosion protection
  43. http://www.jet.efda.org/multimedia/photo-gallery/picture-of-the-week/?pid=268 The Inconel JET vessel in use since 1983
  44. https://www.inconel718.in/ Inconel Alloy
  45. Web site: What are the applications for Inconel 718? . 2022-03-23 . Langley Alloys . en-US.
  46. Robert S. Houston, Richard P. Hallion, and Ronald G. Boston, Editor's introduction, "Transiting from Air to Space: The North American X-15", The Hypersonic Revolution: Case Studies in the History of Hypersonic Technology, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1998. NASA.gov.
  47. Anthony Young, "The Saturn V Booster: Powering Apollo into History", Springer-Verlag, 2009.
  48. Web site: History of inconel and superalloys . 2020-10-24 . 2020-08-09 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200809090854/https://metalpress.onlinemetals.com/inconel-uses/ . dead .
  49. Web site: Space Launch Report: SpaceX Falcon 9 Data Sheet . https://web.archive.org/web/20220406013726/http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon9.html . 6 Apr 2022 . 1 May 2017 . dead.
  50. News: Norris . Guy . SpaceX Unveils 'Step Change' Dragon 'V2' . 2014-05-30 . Aviation Week . 2014-05-30 . 2014-05-31 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140531110355/http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-unveils-step-change-dragon-v2 . dead .
  51. News: Kramer. Miriam . SpaceX Unveils Dragon V2 Spaceship, a Manned Space Taxi for Astronauts — Meet Dragon V2: SpaceX's Manned Space Taxi for Astronaut Trips . 2014-05-30 . space.com . 2014-05-30 .
  52. News: Bergin. Chris . SpaceX lifts the lid on the Dragon V2 crew spacecraft . 2015-03-06 . NASAspaceflight.com . 2014-05-30 .
  53. News: Foust. Jeff . SpaceX unveils its "21st century spaceship" . 2015-03-06 . NewSpace Journal . 2014-05-30.
  54. Web site: SpaceX Launches 3D-Printed Part to Space, Creates Printed Engine Chamber for Crewed Spaceflight . SpaceX . 2015-03-06 . Compared with a traditionally cast part, a printed [part] has superior strength, ductility, and fracture resistance, with a lower variability in materials properties. ... The chamber is regeneratively cooled and printed in Inconel, a high performance superalloy. Printing the chamber resulted in an order of magnitude reduction in lead-time compared with traditional machining – the path from the initial concept to the first hotfire was just over three months. During the hotfire test, ... the SuperDraco engine was fired in both a launch escape profile and a landing burn profile, successfully throttling between 20% and 100% thrust levels. To date the chamber has been fired more than 80 times, with more than 300 seconds of hot fire. . 2017-08-25 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170825191053/http://www.spacex.com/news/2014/07/31/spacex-launches-3d-printed-part-space-creates-printed-engine-chamber-crewed . dead .
  55. https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2019/02/spacex-casting-raptor-engine-parts-from-supersteel-alloys.html SpaceX Casting Raptor Engine Parts from Supersteel Alloys Feb 2019
  56. Web site: Elon Musk's recent "Ludicrous" announcement hints at more synergy between Tesla and SpaceX - Electrek. Electrek . https://web.archive.org/web/20150912040737/http://electrek.co/2015/07/22/elon-musks-recent-ludicrous-announcement-hints-at-more-synergy-between-tesla-and-spacex/ . 12 September 2015 . live.
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  58. News: New Ford EcoBlue turbodiesel engine debuts amid diesel woes. April 26, 2016. Autoblog.com.
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  61. Web site: Jaguar Introduces Ultra-High Performance F-Type SVR ahead of Geneva Debut. www.jaguarusa.com. 2016-06-29. 2016-05-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20160509140958/http://www.jaguarusa.com/about-jaguar/news/jaguar-introduces-f-type-svr-ahead-of-geneva-debut.html. dead.
  62. Web site: Trailing Arm Bolts. www.delorean.com.
  63. Web site: The Secret Sauce of an Airplane's Black Box. Brian. Barrett. 10 January 2011 .
  64. Web site: thepipingmart . 2023-06-28 . Inconel 600 Plates vs Inconel 625 Plates: Which One Should You Choose? . 2023-07-14 . Steemit . en.
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  66. Web site: Commercial alloy qualified for new use, expanding nuclear operating temperature. U.S. Department of Energy Idaho National Laboratory. April 28, 2020.
  67. Web site: Inconel 625 . Advanced Refractory Metal . Aug 11, 2024.
  68. Oliveira . Mauro . Couto . Antonio . 2019 . Mechanical Behavior of Inconel 625 at Elevated Temperatures . Metals . 9 . 3 . 301 . 10.3390/met9030301 . free.
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  70. http://www.ndt-ed.org/GeneralResources/MaterialProperties/ET/Conductivity_Iron.pdf Inconel alloy 690
  71. Web site: DMLS in Aluminum, Inconel or Titanium - Is it worth it? - Blog. gpiprototype.com.
  72. https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090226220711/http://www.specialmetals.com/documents/Inconel%20alloy%20751.pdf Inconel alloy 751
  73. http://www.ijsrd.com/articles/IJSRDV6I50198.pdf Vishal Kumar Jaiswal "Experimental Investigation of Process Parameters on Inconel 925 for EDM Process by using Taguchi Method." International Journal for Scientific Research and Development 6.5 (2018): 277-282.
  74. Web site: Inside a 7-second Ford Barra street car | fullBOOST|website=YouTube|date=2021-05-09}} ] has since used Inconel in the exhaust manifold of its high performance luxury car, the BMW M5 E34 with the S38 engine, withstanding higher temperatures and reducing backpressure.[60]
    • Jaguar Cars has fit, in their Jaguar F-Type SVR high performance sports car, a new lightweight Inconel titanium exhaust system as standard which withstands higher peak temperatures, reduces backpressure and eliminates 16kg (35lb) of mass from the vehicle.[61]
    • DeLorean Motor Company offers Inconel replacements for failure prone OE trailing arm bolts on the DMC-12. Failure of these bolts can result in loss of the vehicle.[62]

    Rolled Inconel was frequently used as the recording medium by engraving in black box recorders on aircraft.[63]

    Alternatives to the use of Inconel in chemical applications such as scrubbers, columns, reactors, and pipes are Hastelloy, perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) lined carbon steel or fiber reinforced plastic.

    Inconel alloys

    Alloys of Inconel include:

    • Inconel 188: Readily fabricated for commercial gas turbine and aerospace applications.
    • Inconel 230: Alloy 230 Plate & Sheet mainly used by the power, aerospace, chemical processing and industrial heating industries.
    • Inconel 600: In terms of high-temperature and corrosion resistance, Inconel 600 excels.[64]
    • Inconel 601
    • Inconel 617: Solid solution strengthened (nickel-chromium-cobalt-molybdenum), high-temperature strength, corrosion and oxidation resistant, high workability and weldability.[65] Incorporated in ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for high temperature nuclear applications such as molten salt reactors April, 2020.[66]
    • Inconel 625: Acid resistant, good weldability.[67] The LCF version is typically used in bellows. It is commonly used for applications in aeronautic, aerospace, marine, chemical and petrochemical industries.[68] It is also used for reactor-core and control-rod components in pressurized water reactors and as heat exchanger tubes in ammonia cracker plants for heavy water production.[69]
    • Inconel 690: Low cobalt content for nuclear applications, and low resistivity[70]
    • Inconel 706
    • Inconel 713C: Precipitation hardenable nickel-chromium base cast alloy
    • Inconel 718: Gamma double prime strengthened with good weldability[71]
    • Inconel 738
    • Inconel X-750: Commonly used for gas turbine components, including blades, seals and rotors.
    • Inconel 751: Increased aluminum content for improved rupture strength in the 1600 °F range[72]
    • Inconel 792: Increased aluminum content for improved high temperature corrosion resistant properties, used especially in gas turbines
    • Inconel 907
    • Inconel 909
    • Inconel 925: Inconel 925 is a nonstabilized austenitic stainless steel with low carbon content.[73]
    • Inconel 939: Gamma prime strengthened to increase weldability

    In age hardening or precipitation strengthening varieties, alloying additions of aluminum and titanium combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound or gamma prime (γ′). Gamma prime forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and creep effectively at elevated temperatures.

    See also

    References

    . https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/2hKpRTrGT54. 2021-12-12 . live.

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