Magar Kham language explained

Magar Kham
Also Known As:	Kham
Nativename:	मगर ढुट
States:	Nepal
Ethnicity:	Magar
Speakers:	69,000
Date:	2011
Speakers2:	L2: 28,000 (2011)
Speakers Label:	Speakers
Familycolor:	Sino-Tibetan
Fam2:	Tibeto-Burman
Fam3:	Himalayish
Script:	Devanagari
Lc1:	kif
Ld1:	Eastern Parbate Kham
Lc2:	kgj
Ld2:	Gamale Kham
Lc3:	kip
Ld3:	Sheshi Kham
Lc4:	kjl
Ld4:	Western Parbate Pang
Glotto:	kham1286
Glottorefname:	Kham
Notice:	IPA
Fam1:	Sino-Tibetan
Fam4:	Magaric
Coordinates:	28.563229, 82.848238
Map:	Map_of_Magar_Kham.jpg

Magar Kham (मगर खाम), also known as Kham, Kham Magar, and Khamkura, is the Sino-Tibetan language variety of the Northern Magar people of Nepal.^{[1] [2] [3]} The language is situated in the upper elevations of Baglung, East Rukum, and Rolpa districts. Based on census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham is estimated to be about 69,000 speakers.^[4]

Language classification

Magar Kham is a Sino-Tibetan language, and it is classified by David Bradley as “Central Himalayan,” and as being related to Magar and Chepang and more distantly related to the Kiranti languages. George van Driem also classifies Magar Kham as “Para-Kiranti,” emphasizing that Magar Kham, Magar, and Chepang are united more by their differences from the Kiranti cluster than by their similarity to one another.^{[5] [6]} Within this cluster, Magar Kham possesses a number of unique grammatical features, and shares only 44% lexical similarity with Magar and 38% with Chepang.^[7]

Dialects

Magar Kham speakers generally refer to their dialect using the name of an important village or river in conjunction with the Nepali instrumental suffix [-le] or the genitive suffix [-i]. Thus, it can be said that Magar Kham has as many dialects as there are villages and rivers in their native territory. The table below presents the major dialects of the Magar Kham language as they have been classified by David E. Watters. The ISO 639-3 codes associated with each major dialect are presented in brackets.

Magar Kham varieties

Gamal Kham [kgj]	Sheshi Kham [kip]	Parbate Kham
Ghusbangi KhamTamali Kham	Jangkoti KhamTapnangi Kham	Western Parbate Kham [kjl]	Eastern Parbate Kham [kif]
		Maikoti Kham Takale Kham Thabangi Kham Wale Kham	Nisel Kham Bhujel Kham

At the highest level in the table, Kham has been divided into Gamal Kham, Sheshi Kham, and Parbate Kham, which is further divided into Eastern and Western Parbate Kham. As previously stated, these four major dialects are mutually unintelligible and bear unique grammatical innovations indicative of different languages.^[8] For this reason, each of these dialects have been given its own ISO 639-3 designation.

Speakers

Based on the census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham speakers is estimated to be about 69,000 persons.^[4] The tables below presents the homeland population estimates by district and by dialect. It is estimated that about 15,000 Magar Kham speakers live in diaspora.

Magar Kham population by district

Province	District	Estimated Population
Gandaki	Baglung	5,000
Lumbini	East Rukum	17,000
Lumbini	Rolpa	29,000

Magar Kham population by dialect/variety

According to Ethnologue:

Dialect	ISO 639-3	Native speakers (year)	L2 speakers (year)	Total speakers (year)
Gamal Kham	kgj	7,000 (2011)	3,000 (2011)	10,000 (2011)
Sheshi Kham	kip			15,000 (2011)
Eastern Parbate	kif			5,000 (2011)
Western Parbate	kjl	44,000 (2003)	25,000 (2011)	69,000 (2003–2011)
All varieties				99,000 (2003–2011)

Estimates are based on the number of persons registering their mother tongue as either “Magar” or “Kham” within the territory of the northern Magars.

Language vitality

Although their homeland is fairly homogeneous, northern Magars are multilingual.^{[9] [10]} The national language of Nepali is spoken confidently by all individuals under 35 years old. In some communities (Sheshi and Eastern Parbate), parents have shifted to speaking Nepali with their children, and the speaker population is gradually decreasing. However, in all of East Rukum and in the Gam river valley of Rolpa, the language is being vigorously transmitted. Ethnologue has assigned the following EGIDS levels to each variety:

• Western Parbate Kham [kjl]: level 5 (Developing)
• Eastern Parbate Kham [kif]: level 6b (Threatened)
• Gamal Kham [kgj]: level 6a (Vigorous)
• Sheshi Kham [kip]: level 6b (Threatened)

The UNESCO Endangered Languages Project has classified Gamal Kham as "Vulnerable."^[11]

Phonology

Consonants

The Taka dialect of Western Parbate Kham has 22 consonant phonemes while Gamal Kham possesses around 29 to 30 consonant phonemes.

		Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	voiceless	pronounced as /ink/^2	pronounced as /ink/^2			pronounced as /ink/^1
	voiced	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/			pronounced as /ink/
Plosive/ Affricate	voiceless	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/^2
	voiced	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/
	aspirated	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/
Fricative	voiceless		pronounced as /ink/^2	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/^1		pronounced as /ink/
	voiced			pronounced as /ink/
Rhotic			pronounced as /ink/^3
Approx.		pronounced as /ink/^2				pronounced as /ink/^2
		pronounced as /ink/^2	pronounced as /ink/		pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/

1. These phonemes only appear in Ghusbang and Sheram^[12] dialect. All others appear in every Kham dialect.
2. These phonemes do not occur in Parbate Kham.
3. The rhotic pronounced as //ɾ// is realized as a trill pronounced as /[r]/ at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a flap.

Vowels

Taka dialect of Western Parbate has 25 vowel phonemes.

	Front					Central			Back
	unrounded			rounded					unrounded			rounded
			nasal		long			nasal			nasal			nasal
Close	pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/				pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
Mid	pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/				pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/
Open mid	pronounced as /ink/
Open						pronounced as /ink/^1	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/

1. These vowels occur in every dialect of Kham.

Tone

See vocal registers.

Writing

Consonants

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
Deva.	[[:wiktionary:ज़|ज़]]^[13]	[[:wiktionary:झ़|झ़]]	[[:wiktionary:न्ह|न्ह]]	[[:wiktionary:म्ह|म्ह]]	[[:wiktionary:व़|व़]]	[[:wiktionary:ह्ल|ह्ल]]	[[:wiktionary:ह्व|ह्व]]	[[:wiktionary:ह्व़|ह्व़]]
trans.	z	zh	nh	mh	ẏ	hl	hw	hẏ
IPA	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /ink/

क	ख	ग	घ	ङ
pronounced as //kə//	pronounced as //kʰə//	pronounced as //ɡə//	pronounced as //ɡə̤//	pronounced as //ŋə//
च	छ	ज	झ	ञ
pronounced as //t͡sə//	pronounced as //t͡sʰə//	pronounced as //d͡zə//	pronounced as //d͡zə̤//	pronounced as //nə//
ट	ठ	ड	ढ	ण
pronounced as //tə//	pronounced as //tʰə//	pronounced as //də//	pronounced as //də̤//	pronounced as //nə//
त	थ	द	ध	न
pronounced as //tə//	pronounced as //tʰə//	pronounced as //də//	pronounced as //də̤//	pronounced as //nə//
प	फ	ब	भ	म
pronounced as //pə//	pronounced as //pʰə//	pronounced as //bə//	pronounced as //bə̤//	pronounced as //mə//
य	र	ल	व
pronounced as //jə//	pronounced as //rə//	pronounced as //lə//	pronounced as //wə//
श	ष	स	ह
pronounced as //çə//	pronounced as //sə//	pronounced as //sə//	pronounced as //hə//
क्ष	त्र	ज्ञ
pronounced as //t͡sʰə//	pronounced as //trə//	pronounced as //ɡjə//

Vowels

Vowels for Parbate Kham

Devanagari	Roman	IPA
अ	a	ə
आ	ā	ɐ
इ	i	i
इ़	ü	y
ई	ī	iː
उ	u	u
उ़	ï	ɯ
ऊ	ū	uː
ए	e	e, ɛ
ए़	ø	ø
ऐ	ai	əj
ओ	o	o
औ	au	əw
ः	h, ḥ	V̤
ँ	◌̃	◌̃ː
ं	◌̃, ṅ, n, ṇ, ñ	◌̃ː, ŋ, n
ॱ, . °, ॰, ऽ	'	◌ː
ॽ	’	ʔ

Vowels for Gamal Kham

Orthography	अ	आ	इ/ई	उ/ऊ	ए	ऐ	ओ	औ	अं	अः	अँ	ॱअ
Roman	a	ā	i/ī	u/ū	e	ai	o	au	aṃ	aḥ	ã	a'
IPA	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /ink/	pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /ink/pronounced as /ink/

Reconstruction

Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443–456) are given below.

A. Body parts

• *r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
• *yep 'back (upper)'
• *phuː 'belly'
• *dziːh 'blood'
• *klaŋ 'body'
• *s-rus 'bone'
• *nun 'breast'
• *sək 'breath'
• *r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
• *r-tso 'cheek'
• *r-na 'ear'
• *(ba)r-zut 'egg'
• *mik 'eye'
• *s-ŋa 'face'
• *sot 'fat'
• *r-sin 'fingernail'
• *kəŋ 'foot'
• *r-nihl 'gums'
• *r-ta 'guts'
• *muhl 'hair (body)'
• *p-tsem 'hair (head)'
• *kut 'hand'
  • *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
• *s-r-ŋat 'head'
• *s-yiŋ 'heart'
• *b-rəhŋ 'horn'
• *sya 'animal'
• *r-khap 'jawbone'
• *kəl 'kidney'
• *p-sin 'liver'
• *yaːh 'mouth'
• *s-məŋ 'mustache'
• *r-dehŋ 'neck'
• *s-nat 'nose'
• *r-dzihs 'piss'
• *s-nis 'pus'
• *b-rəhm 'rib'
• *p-s-til 'saliva'
• *kli 'shit'
  • *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
• *s-pum 'shoulder'
• *r-sa 'sinew'
• *l-kota 'skin'
• *r-nahp 'snot'
• *r-meh 'tail'
• *r-pihl 'tears'
• *r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
• *p-s-le 'tongue'
• *ha-p-sya 'tooth'
• *wohs 'vomit'
• *hwaŋ 'waist'
• *r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
• *kər 'wing'

B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'

• *dahpa 'bachelor'
• *za 'child'
• *nan 'friend'
• *b-re 'husband'
• *dahme 'maiden'
• *r-min 'name'
• *r-mi; *ruː 'person'
  • *s-lepa 'man, male human'
  • *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
• *nana 'sister (older)'
• *nam 'sister (younger)'
• *nəŋ 'thou'
• *dzya 'wife'

C. Foodstuff

• *bəhres 'bread'
• *tsip 'curry'
• *r-zəm 'food'
• *s-ŋən 'herbs'
• *raŋrəi 'millet'
• *r-mo 'mushroom'
• *hek 'parched grain'
• *tuk 'poison'
• *(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
• *plima 'wheat'

D. Animal names or animal products

• *səhr 'antelope'
• *nim 'bear'
• *r-pen 'bedbug'
• *b-zin 'bee'
• *bwa 'bird'
  • *s-puŋ 'chick'
• *gəl 'boar (wild)'
• *b-s-rut 'bug'
• *s-raŋ 'cat'
• *har 'cow'
• *kaːh 'dog'
• *ŋah 'fish'
• *tek 'frog'
• *ra 'goat'
• *r-ta 'horse'
• *r-pəti 'leech'
• *la 'leopard'
• *syar 'louse'
• *s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
• *srəm 'otter'
• *b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
• *wə 'pig'
• *bi 'rat'
• *luk 'sheep'
• *guhl 'snake'
  • *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
• *p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
• *s-kyar 'woodpecker'
• *p-sən 'wool'

E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms

• *r-plah 'ashes'
• *kər 'branch'
• *r-pup 'cave'
• *la 'day'
  • *tshyam 'a certain day'
• *b-rih 'dirt'
• *r-gəm 'earth'
• *rihm 'evening'
• *ehŋ 'field'
  • *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
• *meh 'fire'
• *p-set 'fruit'
• *tshi 'grass'
• *kuŋ 'hole'
• *dzəhŋ 'iron'
• *s-la 'leaf'
• *r-nahm 'low country'
• *p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
• *goŋ 'mountain'
• *rik; *mun 'night'
• *r-wa 'rain'
• *bəih 'river'
• *yem 'road'
• *s-rin 'root'
• *sa + *pik 'salt'
• *nup 'set (sun)'
• *saŋ 'shadow'
• *nəm 'sky'
• *mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
• *r-pom 'snow'
• *səro 'star'
• *r-dzuht 'stick'
• *luŋ 'stone'
• *nəmi(y) 'sun'
• *b-zu 'thorn'
• *siŋ 'tree'
• *riːh 'water'
  • *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
• *rəhm 'weed'

F. Artifacts and social organization

• *r-wan 'arrowhead'
• *r-wa 'axe'
• *r-beh(k) 'basket'
• *li 'bow'
• *tshəm 'bridge'
• *pəsi(-s) 'broom'
• *kwa 'cloth'
• *yahm 'door'
• *b-rihŋ 'drum'
• *'gor 'circle'
• *muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
• *zihm 'house'
  • *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
• *khor 'knife'
• *gur 'load'
• *tən 'sleeping mat'
• *b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
• *tshum 'mortar'
• *r-gəp 'a small needle'
• *r-khap 'a large needle'
• *b-zəhn 'net'
• *r-gum 'pillow'
• *gohr 'plow'
• *b-dza 'pot'
• *p-sip 'sheath'
• *tsihŋ 'snare'
• *gel 'spirit'
• *naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
• *ehn 'work'
• *kum 'yoke'

G. Spatial/directional

• *glahŋ 'across'
• *chin 'behind'
• *khar 'center'
• *me 'down'
• *s-ŋa 'front'
• *thək 'upright'
• *a-sniŋ 'year'
  • *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
  • *pərniŋ 'next year'

H. Numerals and quantifiers

• *tə 'one'
• *nehs 'two'
• *sohm 'three'
• *b-zi 'four'
• *r-ŋa 'five'

I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function

• *sən; *so 'awaken'
• *klik 'cry'
• *eh 'defecate'
• *si 'die'
• *b-yi 'fart'
• *sas 'laugh'
  • *p-s-rat 'to play'
  • *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
• *nah 'rest'
• *tsuŋ 'sit'
• *r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
  • *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
• *p-tshis 'sneeze'
• *s-paŋ 'speak'
• *tsyahŋ 'stand'
• *kəlet 'tickle'
• *r-dzihs 'urinate'
• *who-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
• *gəhr 'weep'

J. Verbs of motion

• *kles 'arrive'
• *rə-t 'bring'
• *plu-s 'climb'
• *huŋ 'come'
• *plu-s 'emerge'
  • *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
• *te-s 'fall'
• *s-bur 'fly'
• *z-ba 'go'
• *b-la 'graze'
• *mohŋ 'hide'
• *zok 'run'

K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception

• *r-məŋ 'dream'
• *p-tshet 'fear'
• *s-meŋ 'forget'
• *that 'hear'
  • *thas 'to be heard, audible'
• *sən 'know'
• *r-ses 'something, to know how'
• *r-sək 'proud'
• *rəhŋ 'see'
  • *p-tsyu 'to look'
• *s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
• *b-ris 'tingle'

L. Stative verbs with human patients

• *məhŋ 'drunk'
• *sot 'fat'
• *kre 'hunger'
• *na 'ill'
• *so 'itchy'
• *tshaŋ 'pure'
• *tsos 'thirst'

M. Stative verbs with non-human patients

• *pək 'bad'
• *li 'be'
• *p-se 'bear fruit'
• *s-ta-s 'become'
• *ka 'bitter'
• *pak 'broken'
• *mom 'bud'
• *p-set 'bud'
• *r-pu-s 'burst'
• *zihm; *gim 'cold'
• *s-ta 'collapsed'
• *s-kluŋ 'detach'
• *thəŋ 'dried'
• *yək 'full'
• *p-tsa 'good'
• *s-len 'greasy'
• *piŋ 'green'
• *gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
• *s-gwaŋ 'hole'
• *b-rah 'hot'
• *wyi 'leak'
• *bom 'light'
• *s-lo; *b-re 'long'
• *dzöhl 'loose'
• *mah 'lost'
• *s-dem ~ *them 'low'
• *khət 'matched'
• *sahr 'new'
• *gyahm 'red'
• *mihn 'ripe'
• *tsik 'rotten'
• *lum 'round'
• *p-tsha 'sharp'
• *tun 'short'
• *zim 'small'
• *b-sir 'sour'
• *tuk 'spicy'
• *sli-s 'stale'
• *b-rehk 'sweet'
• *ruhŋ 'thick'
• *plek 'thin'
  • *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
• *mun 'warm'
• *pal 'white'
  • *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'

N. Action verbs with human agent

• *s-po 'beat'
• *ŋih 'beg'
• *kəi 'bite'
• *s-mut 'blow'
  • *phut 'to blow with bellows'
• *r-lap 'bore'
• *s-kle(t) 'break'
• *hip 'burn'
• *r-duhp 'butt'
• *ləhŋ 'buy'
  • *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
  • *b-los 'to borrow'
• *guhr 'carry'
• *kloh 'catch'
• *kwa-t 'clothe'
• *r-sat 'comb'
• *phin 'cook'
  • *mihn 'to cook until done'
  • *tso 'to boil'
• *kəp 'cover'
• *pəl 'cut'
  • *kri 'to cut meat'
• *p-syah 'dance'
• *goh 'dig'
• *gəp 'draw water'
• *zya 'eat'
  • *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
• *hat 'extract'
• *z-dət 'find'
• *z-dup 'gather'
• *ya 'give'
• *p-set 'grind'
• *r-guh 'guard'
• *tup 'hammer'
• *tsho 'herd'
• *phok 'husk'
• *lut 'insert'
• *tak 'install'
• *r-then 'kick'
• *saht 'kill'
• *kek 'ladle'
• *b-rihm 'lay wall'
• *lep 'lick'
• *dzət 'make'
• *pek 'milk'
• *z-bra-t 'mix'
• *pho-t 'open'
• *phok 'pay'
• *tik 'pick up'
• *s-krəp 'pin closed'
• *p-tsil 'pinch'
• *p-sut 'plug'
• *tek 'press'
• *dzəhk 'put'
  • *nat 'to set down, place'
• *ra-s 'release'
• *phit 'remove from fire'
• *tsep 'ride'
• *s-ŋo 'roast'
• *b-zu 'rub'
  • *p-sil 'to scrub'
• *s-lom 'scald'
• *sim 'scoop'
• *s-pik 'scrape'
  • *pur 'to scratch'
• *s-nan 'seize'
• *p-yet 'sell'
• *s-priŋ 'send'
• *ruhp 'sew'
• *p-yen 'shave'
• *gap 'shoot'
• *s-tən 'show'
• *kok 'skin, peel'
• *phyak 'snap'
• *tshim 'soak'
• *was 'sow seed'
• *khəl 'spin wool'
• *p-si 'split firewood'
• *tser 'squeeze'
• *ku 'steal'
  • *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
• *r-wal 'stir'
• *on 'stop'
• *sit 'sweep'
• *p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
• *p-tsit 'tear'
• *khya 'throw'
• *s-ki 'tie'
• *s-to 'trade'
• *kil 'twist'
• *s-krup 'unfold'
• *bohk 'uproot'
• *tse 'wash'
  • *r-za 'to wash hair'
• *rəhk 'weave'
  • *rihn 'to set up a loom'
• *hul 'whet'

Further reading

• Dictionary: (Takale dialect) Watters, David E. 2004. A dictionary of Kham: Taka dialect (A Tibeto-Burman language of Nepal). Kirtipur: Tribhuvan University.
• Dictionary: (Gamal dialect) List of Gamale Kham words at Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
• Grammar: Watters, David E.. (2002). A grammar of Kham. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
• Verbal Morphology: (Gamal dialect) Moore, Glen M.. (2020). A Description of Selected Aspects of Gamale Kham Verbal Morphology.
• Verbal Morphology: Rempt, Boudewijn. (1994). The verbal agreement system of four Khām languages. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 17. 1-59.
• Phonology: (Gamal dialect) Wilde, Christopher P. (2017). A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties. JSEALS Volume 10.1.
• Sociolinguistic Study: Watters, Stephen. (2018). Linguistic identity and dialect diversity: A conundrum with regard to Magar Kham. Language and identity in a multilingual, migrating world. SIL International.
• Sociolinguistic Study: (Western Parbate dialect): Leman, Joseph D. (2019). “Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham: A sociolinguistic study of the Kham language spoken in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal.” Journal of Language Survey Reports. SIL International.

External links

• YouVersion Bible: (Takale dialect) https://my.bible.com/bible/2495/LUK.1.NKham
• PDF Bible: (Takale dialect) https://magarkham.org/en/nt-bible
• YouTube documentary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CNs1KQUPfA
• YouTube Channels:
  • https://www.youtube.com/user/Lugumyals
  • https://www.youtube.com/c/lajimbudha
  • https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3VmS8h3KatE80fRD2_YKFQ
  • https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCm7nYKAwSsj9niUcs6TQK2w

Notes and References

1. Hitchcock, John T. (1966). The Magars of Banyan Hill. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
2. Fischer, James F. (1986). Trans-Himalayan traders: Economy, society, and culture in northwest Nepal. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
3. Oppitz, Michael. (1991). Onkels tochter, keine sonst. Uncle’s Daughter, Nobody Else. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
4. Web site: National Population and Housing Census 2011: Social Characteristics Tables (Caste/Ethnicity, Mother Tongue and Second Language). Government of Nepal: National Planning Commission Secretariat – Central Bureau of Statistics. February 2014.
5. Bradley, David. (1997). “Tibeto-Burman languages and classification.” In Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics No. 14: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas, edited. by David Bradley, 1-72, Canberra: Australian National University.
6. van Driem, George. (2001). Languages of the Himalayas: An ethnographic handbook of the greater Himalayan region, vol. 2. Leiden: Brill.
7. Watters, David E.. (2002). A grammar of Kham. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
8. Watters, David E.. (1998). The Kham language of west-central Nepal (Takale dialect). Ph.D. dissertation. Eugene, Oregon.
9. Leman, Joseph D. (2019). “Sociolinguistic Profile of Maikoti Kham: A sociolinguistic study of the Kham language spoken in the area of Maikot village in East Rukum District of Nepal.” Journal of Language Survey Reports. SIL International.
10. Watters, Stephen. (2018). Linguistic identity and dialect diversity: A conundrum with regard to Magar Kham. Language and identity in multilingual, migrating world. SIL International.
11. Web site: Gamale Kham. Endangered Languages Project.
12. Wilde . Christopher P. . 2017-06-01 . A Phonological Comparison of Gamale, Sheram and Ghusbang – Three Kham Varieties . Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society . en . 10 . 1 . 67–90 . 1836-6821.
13. Wilde. Christopher P.. 2016. Gamale Kham phonology revisited, with Devanagari-based orthography and lexicon. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. en. 1836-6821.