Rukai language explained

Rukai
Nativename:	Drekay
States:	Taiwan
Region:	Pingtung County Kaohsiung County Taitung County
Ethnicity:	Rukai
Date:	2002
Ref:	e18
Familycolor:	Austronesian
Iso3:	dru
Glotto:	ruka1240
Glottorefname:	Rukai
Lingua:	30-HAA-a
Dia1:	Budai
Dia2:	Labuan
Dia3:	Maga
Dia4:	Mantauran
Dia5:	Tanan
Dia6:	Tona
Script:	Latin script (Rukai alphabet)
Map:	Formosan_languages_2005.png
Mapcaption:	Distribution of the Rukai language (in pink) on the island of Taiwan
Map2:	Lang Status 80-VU.svg
Notice:	IPA

Rukai is a Formosan language spoken by the Rukai people in Taiwan. It is a member of the Austronesian language family. The Rukai language comprises six dialects, which are Budai, Labuan, Maga, Mantauran, Tanan and Tona. The number of speakers of the six Rukai dialects is estimated to be about 10,000. Some of them are monolingual. There are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility among the Rukai dialects. Rukai is notable for its distinct grammatical voice system among the Formosan languages.

Classification

Paul Jen-kuei Li considers Rukai to be the first language to have split from the Proto-Austronesian language. Below are the estimated divergence dates of various Formosan languages from Li (2008:215).^[1]

Proto-Austronesian: 4,500 BCE
Rukai: 3,000 BCE
Tsouic: 2,500 BCE (split into Tsou and Southern Tsouic around 1,000 BCE)
Most other splits: 2,000 to 0 BCE
Western Plains: 1,000 CE

Classifications by various scholars repeatedly find that Rukai is one of the, and often the, most divergent of the Austronesian languages. It is therefore prime evidence for reconstructing Proto-Austronesian. Ross (2009) notes that to date, reconstructions had not taken Rukai into account, and therefore cannot be considered valid for the entire family.

Dialects

Rukai is unique for being the only Formosan language without a focus system.^[2]

Tanan Rukai is also the Formosan language with the largest consonant inventory, with 23 consonants and 4 vowels having length contrast.^[3] Tanan Rukai also makes an animate/inanimate instead of a personal/non-personal one as most other Formosan languages do.

Mantauran is one of the most divergent dialects. Li (2001) classifies them as follows:^[4]

Rukai
- Mantauran (萬山 Wanshan, also 'oponoho): 250–300 speakers
  - - - Maga–Tona
    - Maga (馬加 Majia)
    - Tona (多納 Duona)
  - Budai–Tanan (Rukai Proper)
    - Budai (霧台 Wutai)
    - Tanan (大南 Danan; also Taromak)

Geographic distribution

According to Zeitoun (2007:4), there are a total of 6 Rukai dialects spoken in 12 different villages.

Dialect!c=02
Autonym	c=03	Village	c=04	Township
Tanan	c=02	Taromak	c=03	Tunghsin 東興	c=04	Peinan Township, Taitung County
Labuan	c=02	Laboa(n)	c=03	Tawu 大武	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
Labuan	c=02	Talamakao	c=03	Chinye	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
Budai	c=02	Vedrai	c=03	Wutai 霧臺	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
	c=02	Kucapungan	c=03	Haocha 好茶	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
	c=02	Adiri	c=03	Ali 阿禮	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
	c=02	Kalramomodhesae	c=03	Chiamu 佳暮	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
	c=02	Kinulan	c=03	Chulu 吉露	c=04	Wutai Township, Pingtung County
Maga	c=02	Teldrɨka	c=03	Maolin 茂林	c=04	Maolin Township, Kaohsiung County
Tona	c=02	Kongadavane	c=03	Tona 多納	c=04	Maolin Township, Kaohsiung County
Mantauran	c=02	'oponoho	c=03	Wanshan 萬山	c=04	Maolin Township, Kaohsiung County

Together, Maga, Tona, and Mantauran are also known as the "Lower Three Villages." Rukai have also recently in Sandimen Township and southern Sanhe Village, Majia Township, where there are many Paiwan. Sanhe Village is also where the Budai Rukai originally lived in before they relocated to Wutai Township in the mid-1900s.

Phonology

Most Rukai dialects have four vowels and retroflex and interdental consonants.

Budai Rukai^[5] has four vowels, pronounced as //i ə a u//. Words ending phonemically in a consonant add an echo vowel, one of pronounced as //i ə u//, which unlike morphophonemic vowels is often lost in derivation. pronounced as //ə// is used when the last vowel of the stem is pronounced as //a//.


					Velar
Nasal		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Stop	voiceless	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Stop	voiced	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/
Affricate				pronounced as /link/
Fricative	voiceless		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Fricative	voiced	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Trill				pronounced as /link/
Approximant		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/

Due to influence from Paiwan and Chinese, younger speakers sometimes pronounce pronounced as //ð// as pronounced as /[z]/, and in Tanan Rukai, younger speakers may merge pronounced as //θ// into pronounced as //s//.

In Mantauran Rukai, the voiced stops have spirantized: *b to pronounced as //v//, *d and *ɖ to pronounced as //ð//, and *g to pronounced as //h//.

The following table displays the consonant inventory of Mantauran Rukai, with written representations that differ from their IPA representations given in angle brackets (Zeitoun 2007):


					Glottal
Nasal	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/ (ng)
Stop	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/ (’)
Affricate			pronounced as /link/ (c)
Fricative	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/ (dh)	pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Trill			pronounced as /link/
Approximant			pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/ (lr)

4 vowels, written a, i, e, o

Grammar

Morphology

Basic Mantauran Rukai syllables take on a basic structure, with words usually ranging from 2 to 4 syllables long (Zeitoun 2007). There are four morphological processes.

Affixation
Stem modification
Reduplication
Compounding

The following reduplication patterns occur in Budai Rukai (Austronesian Comparative Dictionary).

Reduplication of the noun stem

N + RED 'a great amount'
N(umeral or period) + RED 'lasting for a period of...'

Reduplication of the verb stem

V + RED 'continuous, keep doing, do repeatedly'
V + RED 'future'
V (stative) + RED 'intensity, comparatively greater'

In Budai Rukai, reduplication of a bound stem can also be used to create certain basic nouns and verbs, such as 'thunder,' 'mountain,' and 'to scrape' (Austronesian Comparative Dictionary).

Based on an analysis of the Budai (Kucapungan) dialect, Rukai is said to be unusual among Formosan languages for having a dichotomous active-passive voice system, (Chen & Sung, 2005)^[6] which may include voices such agent, patient, locative, or instrumental focus. Stan Starosta considers this to be an indication that Rukai is the first offshoot of the Austronesian language family (Zeitoun, 2007). However, this dichotomy has been challenged (Chen, 2005).^[7]

Active / Agent Focus (AF): prefix u-/w-
Passive / Patient Focus (PF): prefix ki-

Syntax

Unlike most other Formosan languages, Rukai has an accusative case-marking system instead of an ergative one typical of Austronesian-aligned languages (Zeitoun 2007). There are two types of clauses in Mantauran Rukai:

Nominal
Verbal

Complementalization can take on four strategies (Zeitoun 2007).

Zero strategy (i.e. paratactic complements)
Verb serialization
Nominalization
Causativization

Definite objects can be topicalized in both active and passive sentences.

Function words

Below are some Mantauran Rukai function words from Zeitoun (2007).

la – and
mani – then

Word classes

Zeitoun (2007) distinguishes eleven word classes in Mantauran Rukai:.

Nouns
Verbs
Pronouns
Demonstratives
Numerals
Adverbs
Phrasal elements
Clausal elements
Interclausal elements
Exclamations
Interjections

Verbs

Below are some Mantauran Rukai verb affixes from Zeitoun (2007).

Dynamic verbs: o-; very rarely om- and m-
Stative verbs: ma-
Negating prefix: ki-
Causative: pa-
ʔini-Ca- "(one)self"
mati- "well"
k-in-a ... aə "... more"
ʔako- "barely, just"
ka- "in fact"
mata ... aə "certainly"

Pronouns

Below are Rukai pronouns from Zeitoun (1997).^[8] Note that Mantauran Rukai pronouns are usually bound.

Mantauran Rukai Personal Pronouns
Type of Pronoun			Topic	Nominative	Oblique	Genitive
1st person	singular		iɭaə	-ɭao, nao-	-i-a-ə	-li
	plural	exclusive	inamə	-nai	-i-nam-ə	-nai
	plural	inclusive	imitə, ita	-mita, -ta	-i-mit-ə	-ta
2nd person	singular		imiaʔə	-moʔo	i-miaʔ-ə	-ʔo
2nd person	plural		inomə	-nomi	-i-nom-ə	-nomi
3rd person	visible	singular	ana	–	-i-n-ə	-(n)i
	visible	plural	ana-lo	–	-i-l-i-n-ə	-l-i-ni
	not visible	singular	ðona	–	-i-ð-ə	-ða
	not visible	plural	ðona-lo	–	-i-l-i-ð-ə	-l-i-ða

Budai Rukai Personal Pronouns
Type of Pronoun			Topic	Nominative	Oblique	Genitive
1st person	singular		kunaku	-(n)aku, naw-	nakuanə	-li
	plural	exclusive	kunai	-nai	naianə	-nai
	plural	inclusive	kuta	-ta	mitaanə	-ta
2nd person	singular		kusu	-su	musuanə	-su
2nd person	plural		kunumi	-numi, -nu	numianə	-numi
3rd person	visible	singular	kuini	–	inianə	-ini
	visible	plural	kuini	–	inianə	-ini
	not visible	singular	kuiɖa	–	–	–
	not visible	plural	kuiɖa	–	–	–

Maga Rukai Personal Pronouns
Type of Pronoun			Topic	Nominative	Oblique	Genitive
1st person	singular		i kɨkɨ	ku-, kɨkɨ	ŋkua	-li
	plural	exclusive	i knamɨ	namɨ-, knamɨ	nmaa	-namɨ
	plural	inclusive	i miti	ta-, miti	mitia	-ta
2nd person	singular		i musu	su-, musu	sua	-su
2nd person	plural		i mumu	mu-, mumu	mua	-mu
3rd person	visible	singular	i kini	kini	nia	-ini
	visible	plural	i kini	kini	nia	-ini
	not visible	singular	i kiɖi	kiɖi	ɖia	-ɖa
	not visible	plural	i kiɖi	kiɖi	ɖia	-ɖa

Affixes

Budai Rukai

The list of Budai Rukai affixes below is sourced from Chen (2006:199-203).

Prefixes

a- 'become'
ana- 'if'
api- 'like', 'want'
i- 'at', 'in'
ki- 'to gather', 'to collect'
ki- 'Dative Focus'
ki- 'to dig
ku- 'to remove'
ku- 'Free Pronoun marker'
ku- 'Past marker'
la- 'Plural'
lu- 'Future'
ma- 'Stative Verb'
ma- 'reciprocal'
ma- 'dual (two people)'
mu- 'to remove'
mu- 'self-motion'
- 'ordinal'
nai- 'have done'
ŋi- 'to move in certain direction'
ŋi- '-self'
ŋu- 'to ride'
pa- 'causative'
paŋu- 'by'
sa- 'body parts'
sa- 'when'
si- 'verbal prefix'
si- 'to wear'
sini- 'from'
su- 'to clean'
su- 'belong'
ta- 'to feel'
taru- 'certain'
tu- 'to mark'
tua- 'to wash'
θi- 'to release'
u-/w- 'Agent Focus'

Suffixes

-a 'imperative'
-a 'Accusative Case'
-ana 'still', 'yet'
-anə 'nominalize'
-ŋa 'completive'
-ŋa 'close to'

Infixes

'past tense; non-future'
'realis'
'Goal subject', 'Past time'

Circumfixes

aanə 'future state'
aanə 'nominalizer'
kaanə 'real or genuine'
kalaanə 'season'
saanə 'instrument'
sanuanə 'left-over'
sanulə 'frequency'
taanə 'time', 'location'

Compound (Multiple) Affixes

la-ma- 'plural marker'
ɭi-tara- 'have to', must'
sa-ka- 'household'
sa-ka-uanə ; the whole'
sa-ka-si-... l-anə the ... generation
ta-ra- for a period of time
ta-ra- be good at
t-in-uanə personal relation

Mantauran Rukai

The following list of Mantauran Rukai affixes is sourced from Zeitoun (2007).

a- 'when'
a- (action/state nominalization)
a- 'plural'
-a 'beyond (in time or space)'
-a 'irrealis'
-a 'imperative'
-ae (state nominalization)
aae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
amo- 'will'
-ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
-a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
-ci 'snivel'
dh- 'invisible'
i- 'at'
-i 'irrealis'
-ie (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
-ka 'predicative negation'
ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
kaae 'genuine, real, original'
kalaae 'temporal nominalization'
kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
kapa ...-nga 'all, every'
ki- 'modal negation'
kiae 'whose'
kaae 'more and more'
la- 'plural'
la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
-lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form)
ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
male (forms 'tens')
ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
maae (~ paae; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
'each/both'
maatalile/lo '(a number of) floors'
maka- 'finish'
makale/lo (~ pakale/lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
(~ 'all'
Mali- (~ pali) 'along'
ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
mo- 'anti-causative'
m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
n- 'visible'
-na 'still'
naa- 'continuously'
-nae 'place where'
-nae 'time when'
-nga 'already'
-nga 'superlative'
ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
nia 'concessive'
o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
oe 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
o-ka'ale/lo (~ ko'ale/lo) 'a number of recipients'
om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
pa- 'causative'
pa- 'every N-times'
'stick to, think about'
pa'aae '(what is) left'
pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
pi- 'local causative'
po- 'causative of movement'
po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
saka- 'external'
samori- 'keep on ...-ing' (attaches only to the root kane 'to eat')
sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
so- 'tribute'
ta- (subjective nominalization)
ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
'place where'
taae 'time when'
tan-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
taka- 'a number of persons'
tako- 'while'
tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke)
tali- 'belong to'
ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
ta'ale/lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
to- 'do, make, produce, build'
'use ... for, by ...-ing'
to'a- 'use ... to, for'
'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
'ae 'have a lot of'
'aa- 'turn into'
'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
'ako- (doublet form: 'akoae) 'speak (out)'
'ako- 'barely, a little'
'akole 'say a number of times'
'akonga 'more'
'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
'anoae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
'aole/lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'ole/lo 'a number of times')
'apakale/lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + pakale/lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
'api- 'like ... -ing'
'a-po- 'as a result of'
'apo- 'come out'
'asaae 'what's the use of'
'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
'i- 'passive'
'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
'ia-... ae 'because of, out of'
'ini- 'movement toward'
'ini- 'cross'
'ini- 'consume'
'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
'iniae 'pretend'
'ini(-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from 'inilrao 'resemble')
'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki '(do) for')
'o- 'take off'
'ole/lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
'ole/lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
'o-tali 'unpack'

The following list of Budai Rukai affixes is sourced from the Comparative Austronesian Dictionary (1995).

Nominal affixes

kaanə + N 'something real or genuine
ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
+ N (numeral) 'ordinal'
sa-... anə + V 'instrument, tool'
sa- + N 'some body parts'
taanə + N 'location, time'
ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'

Verbal affixes

-a- + V 'realis'
-a + V 'imperative'
ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
maa- + V 'stative'
mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
ŋo- + N 'to ride'
pa- + V 'causative'
si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
θi + N 'to release'
w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'

References

Book: Li, Paul Jen-kue . Rukai Structure . 1973 . Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica . Special Publication 64 . Taipei.
- Book: Zeitoun, Elizabeth . A Grammar of Mantauran (Rukai) . 2007 . Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica . 978-986-01-1219-1 . Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A4-2 . Taipei.
Book: Chi, Li-so 齊莉莎 . Lǔkǎiyǔ yǔfǎ gàilùn . 2018 . Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui . 978-986-05-5689-6 . Xinbei Shi . zh . zh:魯凱語語法概論 . Introduction to Rukai Grammar . alilin.apc.gov.tw.

External links

Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典 – Rukai search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
Rukai teaching and learning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan
Rukai translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people – published on the website of the presidential office

Notes and References

Book: Li, Paul Jen-kuei . Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics . 2008 . Taylor & Francis . Sanchez-Mazas . Alicia . Time perspective of Formosan Aborigines.
Li . Paul . 2006 . The internal relationships of Formosan languages . Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, 17-20 January 2006, Palawan, Philippines.
Book: Blust, Robert A. . The Austronesian Languages . Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University . 2009 . 978-0-85883-602-0 . Canberra.
Li . Paul Jen-kuei . 2001 . The dispersal of the Formosan aborigines in Taiwan . Language and Linguistics . 2 . 1 . 271–278 . 2021-05-10 . 2020-08-08 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200808011144/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/j2001_1_15_4392.pdf . dead .
Chen . Chun-mei . A Comparative Study on Formosan Phonology: Paiwan and Budai Rukai . 2006 . Ph.D. . The University of Texas at Austin . 2152/3758 . free.
Chen . Cheng-Fu . Sung . Li-May . 2005 . Interrogatives as polarity items in Kucapungan Rukai . Concentric . 31 . 1 . 95–117.
Chen . Cheng-Fu . 2005 . Object voice and nominalization in Rukai . Annual Conference of the Austronesian Formal Linguistics Association . Heinz . Jeffrey . Ntelitheos . Dimitris . 35–47 . Los Angeles .
Zeitoun . Elizabeth . 1997 . The pronominal system of Mantauran (Rukai) . Oceanic Linguistics . 36 . 2 . 312–346 . 10.2307/3622988 . 3622988.