| Kam | |
| Nativename: | Gaeml |
| States: | China |
| Region: | Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi |
| Ethnicity: | Kam people |
| Speakers: | million |
| Date: | 2003 |
| Ref: | e16 |
| Familycolor: | Kradai |
| Fam2: | Kam–Sui |
| Script: | Latin |
| Lc1: | doc |
| Ld1: | Northern Dong |
| Lc2: | kmc |
| Ld2: | Southern Dong |
| Lc3: | cov |
| Ld3: | Cao Miao |
| Glotto: | kami1255 |
| Glottorefname: | Kamic |
| Notice: | IPA |
The Kam or Gam language (lix Gaeml), also known as Dong, is a Kam–Sui language spoken by the Dong people. Ethnologue distinguishes three Kam varieties as separate but closely related languages.
Almost 1.5 million speakers of Southern Dong were counted in the 1990 language census, from a total of 2.5 million people in the Dong ethnic group. The Southern Dong live primarily in Rongjiang, Jinping, Liping, Zhenyuan, and Congjiang counties in Guizhou Province; Longsheng, Sanjiang, and Rongshui counties in northeastern Guangxi; and Tongdao County in Hunan Province. Two Dong villages are also located in northern Vietnam, although only one individual in Vietnam is still able to speak Dong.[1]
The Kam language can be divided into two major subdivisions: Southern Kam and Northern Kam.[2] Northern Kam displays more Chinese influence and lacks vowel length contrast, while Southern Kam is more conservative. Language varieties closely related to or part of Kam include Cao Miao and Naxi Yao. A northern Pinghua variety called Tongdao Pinghua, spoken in Tongdao County, Hunan, has also been significantly influenced by Kam.
Long (2012:19-20)[4] classifies the Kam lectal areas (dialects) as follows.
In Congjiang County, Dong consists of three dialects: Jiudong Chinese: 九洞 (similar to Chejiang Chinese: 车江 Dong), Liudong Chinese: 六洞 (similar to Liping Chinese: 黎平 Dong), and another dialect spoken in Xishan Chinese: 西山, Bingmei Chinese: 丙梅, and Guandong Chinese: 贯洞 (similar to Sanjiang Chinese: 三江 Dong) (Congjiang County Gazetteer 1999:109).
In Suining County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Lianfeng Chinese: 联丰 (including Duolong Chinese: 多龙村), Huangsangping Chinese: 黄桑坪, Le'anpu Chinese: 乐安铺, and other nearby locations.[5] In Chengbu County, Hunan, Dong is spoken in Yanzhai Chinese: 岩寨, Chang'anying Chinese: 长安营, and Jiangtousi Chinese: 江头司.[6]
Kam is also spoken in the single village of Đồng Mộc, Trung Sơn Commune, Yên Sơn District, Tuyên Quang Province, northern Vietnam,[7] where there are about 35 Kam people (Edmondson & Gregerson 2001).[8] The Kam of Đồng Mộc had migrated to Vietnam from China about 150 years ago. The Kam variety spoken in Đồng Mộc is most similar to that of Lípíng Shuǐkǒu (Chinese: 黎平县水口镇) in southeastern Guizhou.
In China, a total of seven counties designated as Dong Autonomous Counties (Chinese: 侗族自治县).
According to the Shaoyang Prefecture Gazetteer (1997), language varieties closely related to Southern Kam are spoken in Naxi Chinese: 那溪, Dongkou County (which had 4,280 ethnic Yao in 1982 (Chen 2013:39)) and Lianmin Chinese: 联民, Suining County. However, they are officially classified by the Chinese government as ethnic Yao, not Dong. Chen Qiguang (2013:39)[9] reports that the ancestors of Naxihua Chinese: 那溪话 speakers had migrated to their current location from Tianzhu, Liping, and Yuping counties of southeastern Guizhou during the early 15th century.
Kam has two main orthographies: the Chinese academic developed system and the independently developed system by Ngo Van Lyong for Southern Kam as spoken in Rongjiang.[10] The Chinese system is most commonly used by linguists and has similarities to other Chinese Kra–Dai language orthographies (such as Zhuang). The Ngo Van Lyong system was inspired by the Vietnamese alphabet and is made for speakers and learners.
While the Chinese system is the most well known, most Kam speakers are not literate.
| Labial | Alveolar | (Alveolo-) palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | pal. | plain | lab. | |||||
| Nasal | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||
| Stop/ Affricate | voiceless | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| aspirated | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||
| Fricative | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| Approximant | central | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
| lateral | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
| Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /link/ | b | pronounced as /link/ | d | pronounced as /link/ | j | pronounced as /link/ | g | pronounced as /link/ | zh | ||
| pronounced as /link/ | p | pronounced as /link/ | t | pronounced as /link/ | q | pronounced as /link/ | k | pronounced as /link/ | ch | ||
| pronounced as /link/ | m | pronounced as /link/ | n | pronounced as /link/ | ny | pronounced as /link/ | ng | pronounced as /link/ | sh | ||
| pronounced as /link/ | w | pronounced as /link/ | l | pronounced as /link/ | ly | pronounced as /link/ | h | pronounced as /link/ | r | ||
| pronounced as /link/ | bi | pronounced as /link/ | s | pronounced as /link/ | x | pronounced as /link/ | gu | pronounced as /link/ | f | ||
| pronounced as /link/ | pi | pronounced as /link/ | y | pronounced as /link/ | ku | pronounced as /link/ | z | ||||
| pronounced as /link/ | mi | pronounced as /link/ | ngu | pronounced as /link/ | c | ||||||
| pronounced as /link/ | wi |
The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 28 syllable-initial consonants.
| IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /link/ | b | pronounced as /link/ | d | pronounced as /link/ | g | pronounced as /link/ | h | pronounced as /link/ | y | pronounced as /link/ | s | pronounced as /link/ | z |
| pronounced as /link/ | p | pronounced as /link/ | t | pronounced as /link/ | k | pronounced as /link/ | f | pronounced as /link/ | w | pronounced as /link/ | x | pronounced as /link/ | c |
| pronounced as /link/ | j | pronounced as /link/ | ng | pronounced as /link/ | ly | pronounced as /link/ | ny | pronounced as /link/ | l | pronounced as /link/ | n | pronounced as /link/ | m |
| pronounced as /link/ | q | pronounced as /link/ | ngh | pronounced as /link/ | lhy | pronounced as /link/ | nhy | pronounced as /link/ | lh | pronounced as /link/ | nh | pronounced as /link/ | mh |
The Chinese orthography for Kam has 64 syllable finals; 14 of them occur only in Chinese loans and are not listed in the table below.
| IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml | IPA | Gaeml |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /a/ | a | pronounced as /ə/ | e | pronounced as /e/ | ee | pronounced as /i/ | i | pronounced as /o/ | o | pronounced as /u/ | u/uu | ||
| pronounced as /aɪ/ | ai | pronounced as /əɪ/ | ei | pronounced as /oɪ/ | oi | pronounced as /uɪ/ | ui | ||||||
| pronounced as /aʊ/ | ao | pronounced as /eʊ/ | eeu | pronounced as /iʊ/ | iu | pronounced as /oʊ/ | ou | ||||||
| pronounced as /am/ | am | pronounced as /ɐm/ | aem | pronounced as /əm/ | em | pronounced as /em/ | eem | pronounced as /im/ | im | pronounced as /om/ | om | pronounced as /um/ | um |
| pronounced as /an/ | an | pronounced as /ɐn/ | aen | pronounced as /ən/ | en | pronounced as /en/ | een | pronounced as /in/ | in | pronounced as /on/ | on | pronounced as /un/ | un |
| pronounced as /aŋ/ | ang | pronounced as /ɐŋ/ | aeng | pronounced as /əŋ/ | eng | pronounced as /eŋ/ | eeng | pronounced as /iŋ/ | ing | pronounced as /oŋ/ | ong | pronounced as /uŋ/ | ung |
| pronounced as /ap/ | ab | pronounced as /ɐp/ | ab | pronounced as /əp/ | eb | pronounced as /ep/ | eb | pronounced as /ip/ | ib | pronounced as /op/ | ob | pronounced as /up/ | ub |
| pronounced as /at/ | ad | pronounced as /ɐt/ | ad | pronounced as /ət/ | ed | pronounced as /et/ | ed | pronounced as /it/ | id | pronounced as /ot/ | od | ||
| pronounced as /ak/ | ag | pronounced as /ɐk/ | ag | pronounced as /ək/ | eg | pronounced as /ek/ | eg | pronounced as /ik/ | ig | pronounced as /ok/ | og | pronounced as /uk/ | ug |
The Ngo Van Lyong orthography for Southern Kam has 116 syllable finals.
| IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm | IPA | Gảm |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /a/ | a | pronounced as /ɔ/ | o | pronounced as /e/ | e | pronounced as /u/ | u | pronounced as /i/ | i | ||
| pronounced as /ɐ/ | ă | pronounced as /o/ | ô | pronounced as /ə/ | ơ | pronounced as /ɿ/ | ư | pronounced as /y/ | ü | ||
| pronounced as /ai/ | ai | pronounced as /oi/ | oi | pronounced as /ɐi/ | ei | pronounced as /əi/ | ơi | pronounced as /ui/ | ui | ||
| pronounced as /au/ | au | pronounced as /ɐu/ | ou | pronounced as /ɛu/ | eu | pronounced as /əu/ | ơu | pronounced as /iu/ | iu | ||
| pronounced as /ʲa/ | ia | pronounced as /ʲo/ | io | pronounced as /ʲe/ | ie | pronounced as /ʷa/ | ua | pronounced as /ʷo/ | uo | pronounced as /ʷe/ | ue |
| pronounced as /ʲai/ | iai | pronounced as /ʲoi/ | ioi | pronounced as /ʲɐi/ | iei | pronounced as /ʲəi/ | iơi | pronounced as /ʲui/ | iui | pronounced as /ʲau/ | iau |
| pronounced as /ʲɐu/ | iou | pronounced as /ʲeu/ | ieu | pronounced as /ʲəu/ | iơu | pronounced as /ʷai/ | uai | pronounced as /ʷoi/ | uoi | pronounced as /ʷɐi/ | uei |
| pronounced as /ʷau/ | uau | pronounced as /ʷɐu/ | uou | pronounced as /ʷeu/ | ueu | pronounced as /ʷəu/ | uơu | pronounced as /ʷiu/ | uiu | pronounced as /ʷəi/ | uơi |
| pronounced as /an/ | an | pronounced as /am/ | am | pronounced as /aŋ/ | ang | pronounced as /ak/ | ak | pronounced as /ap/ | ap | pronounced as /at/ | at |
| pronounced as /ʲan/ | ian | pronounced as /ʲam/ | iam | pronounced as /ʲaŋ/ | iang | pronounced as /ʲak/ | iak | pronounced as /ʲap/ | iap | pronounced as /ʲat/ | iat |
| pronounced as /ʷan/ | uan | pronounced as /ʷam/ | uam | pronounced as /ʷaŋ/ | uang | pronounced as /ʷak/ | uak | pronounced as /ʷap/ | uap | pronounced as /ʷat/ | uat |
| pronounced as /ɐn/ | ăn | pronounced as /ɐm/ | ăm | pronounced as /ɐŋ/ | ăng | pronounced as /ɐk/ | ăk | pronounced as /ɐp/ | ăp | pronounced as /ɐt/ | ăt |
| pronounced as /ʲɐn/ | iăn | pronounced as /ʲɐm/ | iăm | pronounced as /ʲɐŋ/ | iăng | pronounced as /ʲɐk/ | iăk | pronounced as /ʲɐp/ | iăp | pronounced as /ʲɐt/ | iăt |
| pronounced as /ʷɐn/ | uăn | pronounced as /ʷɐm/ | uăm | pronounced as /ʷɐŋ/ | uăng | pronounced as /ʷɐk/ | uăk | pronounced as /ʷɐp/ | uăp | pronounced as /ʷɐt/ | uăt |
| pronounced as /ɔn/ | on | pronounced as /ɔm/ | om | pronounced as /ɔŋ/ | ong | pronounced as /ɔk/ | ok | pronounced as /ɔp/ | op | pronounced as /ɔt/ | ot |
| pronounced as /ʲɔn/ | ion | pronounced as /ʲɔm/ | iom | pronounced as /ʲɔŋ/ | iong | pronounced as /ʲɔk/ | iok | pronounced as /ʲɔp/ | iop | pronounced as /ʲɔt/ | iot |
| pronounced as /ʷɔn/ | uon | pronounced as /ʷɔm/ | uom | pronounced as /ʷɔŋ/ | uong | pronounced as /ʷɔk/ | uok | pronounced as /ʷɔp/ | uop | pronounced as /ʷɔt/ | uot |
| pronounced as /on/ | ôn | pronounced as /om/ | ôm | pronounced as /oŋ/ | ông | pronounced as /ok/ | ôk | pronounced as /op/ | ôp | pronounced as /ot/ | ôt |
| pronounced as /ʲon/ | iôn | pronounced as /ʲom/ | iôm | pronounced as /ʲoŋ/ | iông | pronounced as /ʲok/ | iôk | pronounced as /ʲop/ | iôp | pronounced as /ʲot/ | iôt |
| pronounced as /ʷon/ | uôn | pronounced as /ʷom/ | uôm | pronounced as /ʷoŋ/ | uông | pronounced as /ʷok/ | uôk | pronounced as /ʷop/ | uôp | pronounced as /ʷot/ | uôt |
| pronounced as /en/ | en | pronounced as /em/ | em | pronounced as /eŋ/ | eng | pronounced as /ek/ | ek | pronounced as /ep/ | ep | pronounced as /et/ | et |
| pronounced as /ʲen/ | ien | pronounced as /ʲem/ | iem | pronounced as /ʲeŋ/ | ieng | pronounced as /ʲek/ | iek | pronounced as /ʲep/ | iep | pronounced as /ʲet/ | iet |
| pronounced as /ʷen/ | uen | pronounced as /ʷem/ | uem | pronounced as /ʷeŋ/ | ueng | pronounced as /ʷek/ | uek | pronounced as /ʷep/ | uep | pronounced as /ʷet/ | uet |
| pronounced as /ən/ | ơn | pronounced as /əm/ | ơm | pronounced as /əŋ/ | ơng | pronounced as /ək/ | ơk | pronounced as /əp/ | ơp | pronounced as /ət/ | ơt |
| pronounced as /ʲən/ | iơn | pronounced as /ʲəm/ | iơm | pronounced as /ʲəŋ/ | iơng | pronounced as /ʲək/ | iơk | pronounced as /ʲəp/ | iơp | pronounced as /ʲət/ | iơt |
| pronounced as /ʷən/ | uơn | pronounced as /ʷəm/ | uơm | pronounced as /ʷəŋ/ | uơng | pronounced as /ʷək/ | uơk | pronounced as /ʷəp/ | uơp | pronounced as /ʷət/ | uơt |
| pronounced as /un/ | un | pronounced as /um/ | um | pronounced as /uŋ/ | ung | pronounced as /uk/ | uk | pronounced as /up/ | up | pronounced as /ut/ | ut |
| pronounced as /ʲun/ | iun | pronounced as /ʲum/ | ium | pronounced as /ʲuŋ/ | iung | pronounced as /ʲuk/ | iuk | pronounced as /ʲup/ | iup | pronounced as /ʲut/ | iut |
| pronounced as /in/ | in | pronounced as /im/ | im | pronounced as /iŋ/ | ing | pronounced as /ik/ | ik | pronounced as /ip/ | ip | pronounced as /it/ | it |
| pronounced as /ʷin/ | uin | pronounced as /ʷim/ | uim | pronounced as /ʷiŋ/ | uing | pronounced as /ʷik/ | uik | pronounced as /ʷip/ | uip | pronounced as /ʷit/ | uit |
Kam is a tonal language. Open syllables can occur in one of nine different tones, checked syllables in six tones (so-called entering tones), so that the traditional approach counts fifteen tones. As with the Hmong alphabet, the Chinese orthography marks tones with a consonant at the end of each syllable.
| tone contour: | high | high rising | low | dipping | low rising | low falling | high falling | peaking | mid |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as //˥// (55) | pronounced as //˧˥// (35) | pronounced as //˨// (11) | pronounced as //˨˦// (24) | pronounced as //˩˧// (13) | pronounced as //˧˩// (31) | pronounced as //˥˧// (53) | pronounced as //˦˥˧// (453) | pronounced as //˧// (33) | |
| Orthography: | -l | -p | -c | -s | -t | -x | -v | -k | -h |
| example (open syllable) | bal | pap | bac | bas | qat | miax | bav | pak | bah |
| "fish" | "grey" | "rake" | "aunt" | "light" | "knife" | "leaf" | "destroy" | "chaff" | |
| example (checked syllable) | bedl | sedp | medc | bads | pads | bagx | |||
| "duck" | "seven" | "ant" | "can"? | "blood" | "white" |
The Ngô Văn Lương orthography marks tones via diacritics written above or below the vowel as with the Vietnamese alphabet and only features 6 tones.
| tone contour: | high flat | low flat | high falling | low falling | high rising | low rising | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as //˧// (33) | pronounced as //˨// (11) | pronounced as //˥˩// (51) | pronounced as //˧˩// (31) | pronounced as //˧˥// (45) | pronounced as //˨˦// (24) | ||
| Example: | ba | bá | bà | bạ | bả | bã |