| Hmong | |
| Also Known As: | Mong |
| Nativename: | / / / (Vietnam) / / |
| Pronunciation: | pronounced as /Hmn/ |
| Script: | Hmong writing incl. Pahawh Hmong, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong, multiple Latin standards |
| States: | China, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand |
| Speakers: | million |
| Date: | 1995–2004 |
| Ref: | e27 |
| Map: | Hmong_Mien_lang.png |
| Mapcaption: | Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple |
| Ethnicity: | Hmong |
| Familycolor: | Hmong-Mien |
| Fam2: | Hmongic |
| Fam3: | Core Hmongic |
| Fam4: | West Hmongic |
| Fam5: | Chuanqiandian cluster |
| Minority: |  China Myanmar  Thailand |
| Iso2: | hmn |
| Iso2comment: | Hmong, Mong (China, Laos) |
| Iso3: | hmn |
| Iso3comment: | for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except hmf and hmv |
| Lc1: | cqd |
| Ld1: | Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China) |
| Lc2: | hea |
| Ld2: | Northern Qiandong Miao |
| Lc3: | hma |
| Ld3: | Southern Mashan Hmong |
| Lc4: | hmc |
| Ld4: | Central Huishui Hmong |
| Lc5: | hmd |
| Ld5: | Large Flowery Miao |
| Lc6: | hme |
| Ld6: | Eastern Huishui Hmong |
| Lc7: | hmf |
| Ld7: | Hmong Don (Vietnam) |
| Lc8: | hmg |
| Ld8: | Southwestern Guiyang Hmong |
| Lc9: | hmh |
| Ld9: | Southwestern Huishui Hmong |
| Lc10: | hmi |
| Ld10: | Northern Huishui Hmong |
| Lc11: | hmj |
| Ld11: | Ge |
| Lc12: | hml |
| Ld12: | Luopohe Hmong |
| Lc13: | hmm |
| Ld13: | Central Mashan Hmong |
| Lc14: | hmp |
| Ld14: | Northern Mashan Hmong |
| Lc15: | hmq |
| Ld15: | Eastern Qiandong Miao |
| Lc16: | hms |
| Ld16: | Southern Qiandong Miao |
| Lc17: | hmv |
| Ld17: | Hmong Dô (Vietnam) |
| Lc18: | hmw |
| Ld18: | Western Mashan Hmong |
| Lc19: | hmy |
| Ld19: | Southern Guiyang Hmong |
| Lc20: | hmz |
| Ld20: | Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao) |
| Lc21: | hnj |
| Ld21: | Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States) |
| Lc22: | hrm |
| Ld22: | A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China) |
| Lc23: | huj |
| Ld23: | Northern Guiyang Hmong |
| Lc24: | mmr |
| Ld24: | Western Xiangxi Miao |
| Lc25: | muq |
| Ld25: | Eastern Xiangxi Miao |
| Lc26: | mww |
| Ld26: | Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States) |
| Lc27: | sfm |
| Ld27: | Small Flowery Miao |
| Glotto: | firs1234 |
| Glottorefname: | First Vernacular Hmong |
| Lingua: | 48-AAA-a |
| Notice: | IPA |
Hmong or Mong (; RPA:, Nyiakeng Puachue:, Pahawh:, pronounced as /Hmn/) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos.[1] There are some 2.7 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 Hmong Americans as of 2013.[2] Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the Dananshan dialect forms the basis of the standard language.[3] However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.
Mong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as, called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called . The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" (Chinese: 第一土语) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names Mong Leng, Hmong Dleu/Der, and Hmong Daw are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster.
Ethnologue once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, Small Flowery Miao, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].[4]
These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between British and American English."[5]
Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above:
In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" (Chinese: 第一土语) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:
According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":[5] the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (Hmong Daw); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.[5]
Most Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The CDC states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."[5]
The three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),[7] Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),[8] and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).[9] Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by Hmong Americans. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated pronounced as //m̥// of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, pronounced as //ã//; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.
The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.[10] (Phonemes particular to
Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)| Front | Central | Back | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | ||||
| Close | align=center | pronounced as /link/ ⟨i⟩ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ ⟨w⟩ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ ⟨u⟩ | |||
| Mid | align=center | pronounced as /link/ ⟨e⟩ | pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /eŋ/ ⟨ee⟩ | pronounced as /link/ ⟨o⟩ | pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /ɔŋ/ ⟨oo⟩ | ||||
| Open | align=center | pronounced as /link/ ⟨a⟩ | pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /aŋ/ ⟨aa⟩ | align=center | |||||
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are
color-coded and marked as absent or added.| Front | Central | Back | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |||||
| Close | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | (pronounced as /link/) (added) | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | |||||
| Mid | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /en/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /oŋ/ | ||
| Open | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /aŋ/ | |||||||
| Close component is front | align=center | pronounced as /aj/ (ai) | (absent) | |
| Close component is back | align=center | pronounced as /aw/ (au) | align=center | pronounced as /wɒ/ (ua) |
| pronounced as /əw/ (ou) pronounced as /eβ/ (eu) (added) | align=center |
Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish prenasalization independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to
Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lateral | plain | sibilant | lateral | plain | sibilant | |||||||
| Nasal | voiceless | pronounced as /link/ (hm) | (pronounced as /link/) (hml) | pronounced as /link/ (hn) | pronounced as /link/ (hny) | ||||||||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ (m) | (pronounced as /link/) (ml) | pronounced as /link/ (n) | pronounced as /link/ (ny) | pronounced as /⟨ɴ⟩/ | ||||||||
| Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | pronounced as /link/ (p) | (pronounced as /link/) (pl) | pronounced as /link/ (t) | pronounced as /link/ (tx) | (pronounced as /link/) (dl) | pronounced as /link/ (r) | pronounced as /link/ (ts) | pronounced as /link/ (c) | pronounced as /link/ (k) | pronounced as /link/ (q) | pronounced as /link/ (au) | |
| aspirated | pronounced as /link/ (ph) | (pronounced as /link/) (plh) | pronounced as /link/ (th) | pronounced as /link/ (txh) | (pronounced as /link/) (dlh) | pronounced as /link/ (rh) | pronounced as /link/ (tsh) | pronounced as /link/ (ch) | pronounced as /link/ (kh) | pronounced as /link/ (qh) | |||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ (d) | ||||||||||||
| murmured | pronounced as /link/ (dh) | ||||||||||||
| prenasalized | pronounced as /link/ (np) | (pronounced as /link/) (npl) | pronounced as /link/ (nt) | pronounced as /link/ (ntx) | (pronounced as /link/) (ndl) | pronounced as /link/ (nr) | pronounced as /link/ (nts) | pronounced as /link/ (nc) | pronounced as /link/ (nk) | pronounced as /link/ (nq) | |||
| pronounced as /link/ (nph) | (pronounced as /link/) (nplh) | pronounced as /link/ (nth) | pronounced as /link/ (ntxh) | (pronounced as /link/) (ndlh) | pronounced as /link/ (nrh) | pronounced as /link/ (ntsh) | pronounced as /link/ (nch) | pronounced as /link/ (nkh) | pronounced as /link/ (nqh) | ||||
| Continuant | voiceless | pronounced as /link/ (f) | pronounced as /link/ (x) | pronounced as /link/ (hl) | pronounced as /link/ (s) | pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (xy) | pronounced as /link/ (h) | ||||||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ (v) | pronounced as /link/ (l) | pronounced as /link/ (z) | pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (y) | |||||||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /⟨ɻ⟩/ | ||||||||||||
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are
color-coded and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether pronounced as //c// is an affricate or pronounced as //h// is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with yin tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in angled brackets. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a pronounced as //w//, which occurs only in foreign words.| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lateral | plain | sibilant | lateral | plain | sibilant | ||||||
| Nasal | voiceless | pronounced as /link/ (hm) | (absent) | pronounced as /link/ (hn) | pronounced as /link/ (hni) | |||||||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ (m) | (absent) | pronounced as /link/ (n) | pronounced as /link/ (ni) | pronounced as /link/ (ngg) (added) | |||||||
| Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | pronounced as /link/ (b) | (pronounced as /link/) (bl) | pronounced as /link/ (d) | pronounced as /link/ (z) | (pronounced as /link/) (dl) | pronounced as /link/ (dr) | pronounced as /link/ (zh) | pronounced as /link/ (j) | pronounced as /link/ (g) | pronounced as /link/ (gh) | (pronounced as /link/) |
| aspirated | pronounced as /link/ (p) | (pronounced as /link/) (pl) | pronounced as /link/ (t) | pronounced as /link/ (c) | (pronounced as /link/) (tl) | pronounced as /link/ (tr) | pronounced as /link/ (ch) | pronounced as /link/ (q) | pronounced as /link/ (k) | pronounced as /link/ (kh) | ||
| voiced | (absent) | |||||||||||
| prenasalized | pronounced as /link/ (nb) | (pronounced as /link/) (nbl) | pronounced as /link/ (nd) | pronounced as /link/ (nz) | (absent) | pronounced as /link/ (ndr) | pronounced as /link/ (nzh) | pronounced as /link/ (nj) | pronounced as /link/ (ng) | pronounced as /link/ (ngh) | ||
| pronounced as /link/ (np) | (pronounced as /link/) (npl) | pronounced as /link/ (nt) | pronounced as /link/ (nc) | (absent) | pronounced as /link/ (ntr) | pronounced as /link/ (nch) | pronounced as /link/ (nq) | pronounced as /link/ (nk) | pronounced as /link/ (nkh) | |||
| Continuant | voiceless | pronounced as /link/ (f) | pronounced as /link/ (s) | pronounced as /link/ (hl) | pronounced as /link/ (sh) | pronounced as /link/ (x) | pronounced as /link/ (h) | |||||
| voiced | pronounced as /link/ (v) | pronounced as /link/ (l) | pronounced as /link/ (r) | pronounced as /link/ ~ pronounced as /link/ (y) | (pronounced as /link/) | |||||||
The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with lateral release is controversial. A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with pronounced as //l// as the second element. The difference in analysis (e.g., between pronounced as //pˡ// and pronounced as //pl//) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds. Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. pronounced as //tˡʰ//, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent[11]).
Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is pronounced as //n//. However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving pronounced as //l//.
Only used in Hmong RPA and not in Pahawh Hmong, since Hmong RPA uses Latin script and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is k + ee + b =, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just "" (3rd-Stage Version).
Hmong syllables have simple structure: all syllables have an onset consonant (except in a few particles); nuclei may consist of a monophthong or diphthong; and the only coda consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated pronounced as /[ŋ]/. Similarly, a short pronounced as /[ʔ]/ may accompany the low-falling creaky tone.
Dananshan has a syllabic pronounced as //l̩// (written (l)) in Chinese loans, such as lf 'two' and lx 'child'.
Hmong is a tonal language and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct tones.
| Tone | Hmong Daw example[12] | Hmong/Mong RPA spelling | Vietnamese Hmong spelling | Nyiakeng Puachue | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong Pronunciation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High pronounced as /˥/ | pronounced as //pɔ́// 'ball' | pob | poz | ||||
| Mid pronounced as /˧/ | pronounced as //pɔ// 'spleen' | po | po | ||||
| Low pronounced as /˩/ | pronounced as //pɔ̀// 'thorn' | pos | pos | ||||
| High-falling pronounced as /˥˧/ | pronounced as //pɔ̂// 'female' | poj | pox | ||||
| Mid-rising pronounced as /˧˦/ | pronounced as //pɔ̌// 'to throw' | pov | por | ||||
| Low checked (creaky) tone pronounced as /˩/ (phrase final: long low rising pronounced as /˨˩˧/) | pronounced as //pɔ̰̀// 'to see' | pom | pov | ||||
| Mid-falling breathy tone pronounced as /˧˩/ | pronounced as //pɔ̤̂// 'grandmother' | pog | pol |
The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make tenuis plosives breathy voiced (Chinese: 浊送气), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong g-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with entering tone, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.
Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:
| Tone | IPA | Orthography | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 high falling | pronounced as /˦˧/ 43 | b | |
| 3 top | pronounced as /˥/ 5 | d | |
| 5 high | pronounced as /˦/ 4 | t | |
| 7 mid | pronounced as /˧/ 3 | k | |
| 2 mid falling | pronounced as /˧˩/ 31 | x | |
| 4 low falling (breathy) | pronounced as /˨˩̤/ 21 | l | |
| 6 low rising (breathy) | pronounced as /˩˧̤/ 13 | s | |
| 8 mid rising | pronounced as /˨˦/ 24 | f |
So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly playing a Jew's harp to convey vowel sounds.[13]
See main article: Hmong writing. Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.[14]
Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the Qing Dynasty had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.[15]
Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using Chinese characters, the Lao alphabet, the Russian alphabet, the Thai alphabet, and the Vietnamese alphabet. In addition, in 1959 Shong Lue Yang, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called Pahawh. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.[14]
In the 1980s, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia.[16] The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.[17]
Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.[18]
The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.[14] In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell Hmoob as "Hmong," and Liab Lis is spelled as Lia Lee.[19]
The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.
The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses ; RPA uses for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses (and) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on vs. for the same.
| RPA | Pinyin | Vietnamese | Pahawh | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | ||||
| aa | ang | |||
| ai | ||||
| au | âu | |||
| aw | – | ơư | ||
| e | ê | |||
| ee | eng | ênh | ||
| – | eu | – | – | |
| i | ||||
| ia | – | iê | ||
| o | ||||
| oo | ong | ông | ||
| – | ou | – | – | |
| u | u | |||
| ua | uô | |||
| w | i | ư | ||
| RPA | Dananshan | Vietnamese | Pahawh | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| c | j | ch | ||
| ch | q | |||
| nc | nj | nd | ||
| nch | nq | |||
| d | – | đ | ||
| dh | – | đh | ||
| dl | đr | |||
| dlh | tl | đl | ||
| ndl | – | nđr | ||
| ndlh | – | nđl | ||
| f | ph | |||
| h | ||||
| k | g | c | – | |
| kh | k | kh | ||
| nk | ng | g | ||
| nkh | nk | nkh | ||
| l | ||||
| hl | ||||
| m | ||||
| hm | ||||
| ml | – | mn | ||
| hml | – | hmn | ||
| n | ||||
| hn | hn | |||
| – | ngg | – | – | |
| ny | ni | nh | ||
| hny | hni | hnh | ||
| p | b | p | ||
| ph | p | ph | ||
| np | nb | b | ||
| nph | np | mf | ||
| pl | bl | pl | ||
| plh | pl | fl | ||
| npl | nbl | bl | ||
| nplh | npl | mfl | ||
| q | gh | k | ||
| qh | kh | qh | ||
| nq | ngh | ng | ||
| nqh | nkh | nkr | ||
| r | dr | tr | ||
| rh | tr | rh | ||
| nr | ndr | r | ||
| nrh | ntr | nr | ||
| s | sh | s | ||
| t | d | t | ||
| th | t | th | ||
| nt | nd | nt | ||
| nth | nt | nth | ||
| ts | zh | ts | ||
| tsh | ch | tsh | ||
| nts | nzh | nts | ||
| ntsh | nch | ntsh | ||
| tx | z | tx | ||
| txh | c | cx | ||
| ntx | nz | nz | ||
| ntxh | nc | nx | ||
| v | ||||
| – | w | – | – | |
| x | s | x | ||
| xy | x | sh | ||
| y | z | |||
| z | r | j | ||
There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.
| Tone class | Tone number | Dananshan orthog. | RPA | Vietnamese Hmong | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hmoob | Moob | ||||
| 平 or A | 1 | b pronounced as /˦˧/ | b pronounced as /˥/ | z | |
| 2 | x pronounced as /˧˩/ | j pronounced as /˥˧/ | x | ||
| 上 or B | 3 | d pronounced as /˥/ | v pronounced as /˧˦/ | r | |
| 4 | l pronounced as /˨˩̤/ | s | g | s | |
| 去 or C | 5 | t pronounced as /˦/ | (unmarked) pronounced as /˧/ | ||
| 6 | s pronounced as /˩˧̤/ | g pronounced as /˧˩̤/ | l | ||
| 入 or D | 7 | k pronounced as /˧/ | s pronounced as /˩/ | s | |
| 8 | f pronounced as /˨˦/ | m pronounced as /˩̰/ ~ d pronounced as /˨˩˧/ | v ~ k | ||
Example: lus Hmoob /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / / (White Hmong) / lug Moob / / (Mong Leng) / lol Hmongb (Dananshan) / lus Hmôngz (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".
Hmong is an analytic SVO language in which adjectives and demonstratives follow the noun.
Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):[21]
(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)
The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three grammatical persons and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the personal pronouns of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:
| Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | kuvcur | wbưz | pebpêz | |
| Second | kojcox | nebnêz | nejnêx | |
| Third | nwsnưs | nkawdgơưk | lawvlơưr |
| Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | kuvcur | ibiz | pebpêz | |
| Second | kojcox | mebmêz | mejmêx | |
| Third | nwgnưs | ob tugoz tus | puabpuôz |
Classifiers are one of the features recurrently found in languages of Southeast Asia. In Hmong, the noun does not directly follow a numeral, and a classifier or an adjective is required to count objects. Here are examples from Mong Leeg (Green Hmong):
Also, classifiers may occur with a noun without any numerals for definite and/or specific reference in Hmong. The following examples are again from Green Hmong:
Moreover, nominal possessive phrases are expressed with a classifier; however, it may be omitted when the referent of the possessed noun is inalienable from the possessor as shown in the following Hmong Daw (White Hmong) phrases:
Relativization is also expressed with classifiers.
Although absent in Mandarin Chinese, definite reference by bare classifier constructions are found in Cantonese (Sinitic) and Zhuang (Kra-dai), which is the case for possessive classifier constructions as well.
Hmong is an isolating language in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.[22]
Hmong verbs can be serialized, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Aspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones:
Progressive: (Mong Leeg) taab tom + verb, (White Hmong) tab tom + verb = situation in progress
Taab/tab tom + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when taab/tab tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker yuav. Note that the taab tom construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.
Perfective: sentence/clause + lawm = completed situation
Lawm at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway:
Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using tau, which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. tau + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, tau + verb translates to the past tense in English.
Tau is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. nag hmo, last night). Tau can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:
When tau follows the main verb (i.e. verb + tau), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.
Tau is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) nrhiav tau, to look for; caum tau, to chase; yug tau, to give birth.
Future: yuav + verb:
Yuav + verb may also be seen as indicative of the irrealis mood, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized. That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:
Many Hmong and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language tend to use the word "Xim" (Thai/Lao word) to indicate a specific color, while the true Hmong word for color is "Kob". For example, "Liab yog xim ntawm kev phom sij;" meaning "Red is the color of danger / The red color is of danger".
List of colors:
| Numeral | Hmong Numeral | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords | Pahawh Symbols |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | Ntxaiv | Xoom (Thai/Lao word) | (Ones) | ||
| 1 | Ib | ||||
| 2 | Ob | ||||
| 3 | Peb | ||||
| 4 | Plaub | ||||
| 5 | Tsib | ||||
| 6 | Rau | ||||
| 7 | Xya | ||||
| 8 | Yim | ||||
| 9 | Cuaj | ||||
| 10 | Kaum | (Tens) | |||
| 11 | Kaum ib | ||||
| 20 | Nees nkaum | ||||
| 21 | Nees nkaum ib | ||||
| 30 | Peb caug | ||||
| 31 | Peb caug ib | ||||
| 40 | Plaub caug | ||||
| 41 | Plaub caug ib | ||||
| 50 | Tsib caug | ||||
| 51 | Tsib caug ib | ||||
| 60 | Rau caum | ||||
| 61 | Rau caum ib | ||||
| 70 | Xya caum | ||||
| 71 | Xya caum ib | ||||
| 80 | Yim caum | ||||
| 81 | Yim caum ib | ||||
| 90 | Cuaj caum | ||||
| 91 | Cuaj caum ib | ||||
| 100 | Ib puas | (Hundreds) | |||
| 1,000 | Ib txhiab | Ib phav (Thai/Lao word) | (Thousands) | ||
| 10,000 | Kaum txhiab | Kaum phav (Thai/Lao word) | (Ten thousand) | ||
| 100,000 | Ib puas txhiab | Ib puas phav (Thai/Lao word) | (Hundred Thousands) | ||
| 1,000,000 | Ib roob | Ib lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Millions) | ||
| 10,000,000 | Kaum roob | Kaum lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Ten Millions) | ||
| 100,000,000 | Ib puas roob | Ib puas lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Hundred Millions) | ||
| 1,000,000,000 | Ib kem | Ib phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Billions) | ||
| 10,000,000,000 | Kaum kem | Kaum phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Ten Billions) | ||
| 100,000,000,000 | Ib puas kem | Ib puas phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Hundred Billions) | ||
| 1,000,000,000,000 | Ib tas | Ib lab lab (Thai/Lao word) | (Trillions) | ||
| Days | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sunday | Zwj hnub | Vas thiv (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Monday | Zwj hli | Vas cas (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Tuesday | Zwj quag | Vas as qhas (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Wednesday | Zwj feeb | Vas phuv (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Thursday | Zwj teeb | Vas phab hav (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Friday | Zwj kuab | Vas xuv (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Saturday | Zwj cag | Vas xom (Thai/Lao word) | |
| Months | Pahawh Hmong (Formal) | Hmong RPA | Informal |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | Yeej ceeb | [Lub] Ib hlis | |
| February | Kub xeeb | [Lub] Ob hlis | |
| March | Yaj kiav | [Lub] Peb hlis | |
| April | Keem com | [Lub] Plaub hlis | |
| May | Kub nuj | [Lub] Tsib hlis | |
| June | Tov liaj | [Lub] Rau hlis | |
| July | Huaj xeeb | [Lub] Xya hlis | |
| August | Ceeb cua | [Lub] Yim hlis | |
| September | Tsiab kub leej | [Lub] Cuaj hlis | |
| October | Peem tshais | [Lub] Kaum hlis | |
| November | Looj keev txheem | [Lub] Kaum ib hlis | |
| December | Npuag cawb | [Lub] Kaum ob hlis | |
The Hmong language has found a significant presence in the United States, particularly in Minnesota. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on November 5, 1975.[23]
The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Minnesota is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.[24]
In February 2012, Microsoft released "Hmong Daw" as an option in Bing Translator.[25] In May 2013, Google Translate introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as Hmong).[26]
Research in nursing shows that when translating from English to Hmong, the translator must take into account that Hmong comes from an oral tradition and equivalent concepts may not exist. For example, the word and concept for "prostate" does not exist.[27]
The following is a sample text in Hmong of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with Pahawh Hmong, Nyiakeng Puachue, Hmong RPA, Vietnamese Hmong, Hmong IPA, and English translation.
| Pahawh Hmong | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nyiakeng Puachue | ||
| Hmong RPA | Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij. | |
| Vietnamese Hmong | Cxuô tus nênhl zul los muôx cêr zưx fênhx thiêz siz npâul jôs hâur txox chai. Lơưr xax ndol luz lax thơưx thiêz luz siêz thiêz iz lênhl zuôr tsuv chox uô cê ntơưv iz lênhl ntơưv txôx cêr uô cưr tiz. | |
| Hmong IPA | tsʰuə˧ tu˩ neŋ˧˩̤ ʝu˧˩̤ lɒ˩ muə˥˧ ke˧˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ ᵐbau˧˩̤ ʐɒ˩ hau˧˦ tsɒ˥˧ cai˧. Laɨ˧˦ sa˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ lu˦ la˥˧ tʰaɨ˥˧ tʰiə˦ lu˦ ʂiə˦ tʰiə˦ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ʝuə˧˦ tʂu˩̰ cɒ˥˧ uə˧ ke˧ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˧˦ uə˧ kɨ˧˦ ti˥˧. | |
| English Translation | "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." |
Sample text in both Hmong RPA and Pahawh Hmong:[28] [29] [30]
| Pahawh Hmong | Hmong IPA | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev. | mɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ ɲɨ˥˧ keŋ˦ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ʝeŋ˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ti˦ tsʰi˥˧ tʂʰɨ˩̰ ʂi˩̰ lɒ˩. Niə˥˧ n̥ɒŋ˦ ta˩̰ ʂi˩̰ nɒ˧ tʂeŋ˩̰ muə˥˧ ɲɒ˦ tʰɒŋ˦ pˡaɨ˩ hau˧˦ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦, sɨ˩: e˩ siə˩, ʝu˩ lau˧˦, au˧˦ ta˩ li˧ə˩, tʰiə˦ a˩ me˩ li˧˩ ka˩. Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ M̥ɒŋ˦ nɒ˧ ʝɒ˧˩̤ tʰɒŋ˥˧ li˧ cɒ˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ɲɒ˦ ʂa˦ e˩ siə˩. Ta˦ ʂi˩ nɨ˩ muə˥˧ nɨ˩ puə˧˦ pʰeŋ˥˧ teŋ˥˧ tu˧˩̤, mɒ˥˧ kuə˦, tsu˥˧ ci˧, mɒŋ˥˧ ka˧˦ mɒ˥˧ cɒ˥˧, tʰiə˦ tsʰeŋ˦ meŋ˩̰ mɒŋ˥˧ meŋ˥˧ kʰeŋ˥˧ i˦ ʝa˩̰ ᵑɡau˩ li˧ lɨ˩̰ hai˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤. M̥ɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ɲiə˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ᶮɟa˥˧ ᶮɟeŋ˩, ɲiə˩̰ ke˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧, ɲiə˩̰ pʰɒŋ˥˧ ʝɨ˧˩̤, muə˥˧ ke˧˦ ca˩̰ hɨ˩̰, muə˥˧ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ʂi˦ l̥u˦, ʂi˦ pa˦ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ tʂʰuə˧ heŋ˧˦. | ||||
The 2008 film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood features a large American Hmong speaking cast.[31] [32] The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.[33] The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the Ten Best Films of 2008 from the American Film Institute and a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film.[34] [35]
The following films feature the Hmong language: