Iceberg Explained

An iceberg is a piece of freshwater ice more than 15sp=usNaNsp=us long[1] that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water.[2] [3] Smaller chunks of floating glacially derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits".[4] [5] Much of an iceberg is below the water's surface, which led to the expression "tip of the iceberg" to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen issue. Icebergs are considered a serious maritime hazard.

Icebergs vary considerably in size and shape. Icebergs that calve from glaciers in Greenland are often irregularly shaped while Antarctic ice shelves often produce large tabular (table top) icebergs. The largest iceberg in recent history, named B-15, was measured at nearly 300by in 2000.[6] The largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg measuring 335kmby97kmkm (208milesby60mileskm) sighted 150miles west of Scott Island, in the South Pacific Ocean, by the USS Glacier on November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger than Belgium.[7]

Etymology

The word iceberg is a partial loan translation from the Dutch word ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain,[8] cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon

Iesbarg and Swedish isberg.

Overview

Typically about one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water, which follows from Archimedes's Principle of buoyancy; the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m3 (57 lb/cu ft), and that of seawater about 1025abbr=onNaNabbr=on. The contour of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface.

Iceberg size classifications according to the International Ice Patrol! Size class! Height (m)! Length (m)
Growler<1<5
Bergy bit1–55–15
Small5–1515–60
Medium15–4560–122
Large45–75122–213
Very large>75>213

The largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Icebergs may reach a height of more than 100m (300feet) above the sea surface and have mass ranging from about 100,000 tonnes up to more than 10 million tonnes. Icebergs or pieces of floating ice smaller than 5 meters above the sea surface are classified as "bergy bits"; smaller than 1 meter—"growlers".[9] The largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168m (551feet) above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker Eastwind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have interior temperatures of -15C-20C.[10]

Drift

A given iceberg's trajectory through the ocean can be modelled by integrating the equation

m

d\vec{v
} = -mf\vec \times \vec + \vec_\text + \vec_\text + \vec_\text + \vec_\text + \vec_\text,

where m is the iceberg mass, v the drift velocity, and the variables f, k, and F correspond to the Coriolis force, the vertical unit vector, and a given force. The subscripts a, w, r, s, and p correspond to the air drag, water drag, wave radiation force, sea ice drag, and the horizontal pressure gradient force.[11] [12]

Icebergs deteriorate through melting and fracturing, which changes the mass m, as well as the surface area, volume, and stability of the iceberg.[13] Iceberg deterioration and drift, therefore, are interconnected ie. iceberg thermodynamics, and fracturing must be considered when modelling iceberg drift.

Winds and currents may move icebergs close to coastlines, where they can become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice), or drift into shallow waters, where they can come into contact with the seabed, a phenomenon called seabed gouging.

Mass loss

Icebergs lose mass due to melting, and calving. Melting can be due to solar radiation, or heat and salt transport from the ocean. Iceberg calving is generally enhanced by waves impacting the iceberg.

Melting tends to be driven by the ocean, rather than solar radiation. Ocean driven melting is often modelled as

Mb=K\Deltau0.8

T0-T
L0.2

,

where

Mb

is the melt rate in m/day,

\Deltau

is the relative velocity between the iceberg and the ocean,

T0-T

is the temperature difference between the ocean and the iceberg, and

L

is the length of the iceberg.

K

is a constant based on properties of the iceberg and the ocean and is approximately

0.75\circC-1m0.4day-1s0.8

in the polar ocean.[14]

The influence of the shape of an iceberg[15] and of the Coriolis force[16] on iceberg melting rates has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments.

Wave erosion is more poorly constrained but can be estimated by

Me=cSs(Ts+2)[1+cos(I

3\pi)],
c

where

Me

is the wave erosion rate in m/day,

c=

1
12

mday-1

,

SS

describes the sea state,

TS

is the sea surface temperature, and

Ic

is the sea ice concentration.

Bubbles

Air trapped in snow forms bubbles as the snow is compressed to form firn and then glacial ice.[17] Icebergs can contain up to 10% air bubbles by volume. These bubbles are released during melting, producing a fizzing sound that some may call "Bergie Seltzer". This sound results when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As each bubble bursts it makes a "popping" sound and the acoustic properties of these bubbles can be used to study iceberg melt.[18]

Stability

An iceberg may flip, or capsize, as it melts and breaks apart, changing the center of gravity. Capsizing can occur shortly after calving when the iceberg is young and establishing balance.[19] Icebergs are unpredictable and can capsize anytime and without warning. Large icebergs that break off from a glacier front and flip onto the glacier face can push the entire glacier backwards momentarily, producing 'glacial earthquakes' that generate as much energy as an atomic bomb.[20] [21]

Color

Icebergs are generally white because they are covered in snow, but can be green, blue, yellow, black, striped, or even rainbow-colored.[22] Seawater, algae and lack of air bubbles in the ice can create diverse colors. Sediment can create the dirty black coloration present in some icebergs.[23]

Shape

In addition to size classification (Table 1), icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shapes. The two basic types of iceberg forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a flat top, much like a plateau, with a length-to-height ratio of more than 5:1.[24]

This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island,[25] can be quite large, as in the case of Pobeda Ice Island. Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular. The largest icebergs in the world are formed this way.

Non-tabular icebergs have different shapes and include:[26]

Monitoring and control

History

Prior to 1914 there was no system in place to track icebergs to guard ships against collisions despite fatal sinkings of ships by icebergs. In 1907, SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, rammed an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but she was still able to complete her voyage. The advent of watertight compartmentalization in ship construction led designers to declare their ships "unsinkable".

During the 1912 sinking of the Titanic, the iceberg that sank the Titanic killed more than 1,500 of its estimated 2,224 passengers and crew, seriously damaging the 'unsinkable' claim. For the remainder of the ice season of that year, the United States Navy patrolled the waters and monitored ice movements. In November 1913, the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea met in London to devise a more permanent system of observing icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed the International Ice Patrol (IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data on meteorology and oceanography to measure currents, ice-flow, ocean temperature, and salinity levels. They monitored iceberg dangers near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and provided the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community. The IIP published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg movement.

Technological development

Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness of radar in detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster evaluation of data. By the 1970s, ice-breaking ships were equipped with automatic transmissions of satellite photographs of ice in Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, drifting buoys were used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic and climate research. They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean temperature and currents.

Side looking airborne radar (SLAR) made it possible to acquire images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995, Canada launched RADARSAT-1. Developed by the Canadian Space Agency, it provides images of Earth for scientific and commercial purposes. This system was the first to use synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which sends microwave energy to the ocean surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. The European Space Agency launched ENVISAT (an observation satellite that orbits the Earth's poles)[27] on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space Agency launched RADARSAT-2 in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and follows the same orbit path as RADARSAT-1.[28]

Modern monitoring

Iceberg concentrations and size distributions are monitored worldwide by the U.S. National Ice Center (NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts of Arctic, Antarctic, Great Lakes and Chesapeake Bay ice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than 10nmi along at least one axis a name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used are as follows:[29]

A  - longitude 0° to 90° W (Bellingshausen Sea, Weddell Sea)

B  - longitude 90° W to 180° (Amundsen Sea, Eastern Ross Sea)

C  - longitude 90° E to 180° (Western Ross Sea, Wilkes Land)

D  - longitude 0° to 90° E (Amery Ice Shelf, Eastern Weddell Sea)The Danish Meteorological Institute monitors iceberg populations around Greenland using data collected by the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on the Sentinel-1 satellites.

Iceberg management

In Labrador and Newfoundland, iceberg management plans have been developed to protect offshore installations from impacts with icebergs.[30]

Commercial use

The idea of towing large icebergs to other regions as a source of water has been raised since at least the 1950s, without having been put into practice. In 2017, a business from the UAE announced plans to tow an iceberg from Antarctica to the Middle East; in 2019 salvage engineer Nick Sloane announced a plan to move one to South Africa[31] at an estimated cost of $200 million.[32] In 2019, a German company, Polewater, announced plans to tow Antarctic icebergs to places like South Africa.[33]

Companies have used iceberg water in products such as bottled water, fizzy ice cubes and alcoholic drinks.[34] For example, Iceberg Beer by Quidi Vidi Brewing Company is made from icebergs found around St. John's, Newfoundland.[35] Although annual iceberg supply in Newfoundland and Labrador exceeds the total freshwater consumption of the United States, in 2016 the province introduced a tax on iceberg harvesting and imposed a limit on how much fresh water can be exported yearly.

Oceanography and ecology

The freshwater injected into the ocean by melting icebergs can change the density of the seawater in the vicinity of the iceberg.[36] [37] Fresh melt water released at depth is lighter, and therefore more buoyant, than the surrounding seawater causing it to rise towards the surface. Icebergs can also act as floating breakwaters, impacting ocean waves.[38]

Icebergs contain variable concentrations of nutrients and minerals that are released into the ocean during melting.[39] [40] Iceberg-derived nutrients, particularly the iron contained in sediments, can fuel blooms of phytoplankton.[41] Samples collected from icebergs in Antarctica, Patagonia, Greenland, Svalbard, and Iceland, however, show that iron concentrations vary significantly, complicating efforts to generalize the impacts of icebergs on marine ecosystems.

Recent large icebergs

Iceberg B15 calved from the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 and initially had an area of 11000km2. It broke apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it, Iceberg B-15A, with an area of 3000km2, was still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica.[42] It has been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by ocean swell generated by an Alaskan storm 6 days earlier and 13500km (8,400miles) away.[43] [44]

In culture

One of the most infamous icebergs in history is the Iceberg that sank the Titanic. The catastrophe led to the establishment of an International Ice Patrol shortly after. Icebergs in both the northern and southern hemispheres have often been compared in size to multiples of the 59.1km2-area of Manhattan Island.[57] [58] [59] [60] [61] Artists have used icebergs as the subject matter for their paintings. Frederic Edwin Church, The Icebergs, 1861 was painted from sketches Church completed on a boat trip off Newfoundland and Labrador.[62] Caspar David Friedrich, The Sea of Ice, 1823–1824 is polar landscape with an iceberg and ship wreck depicting the dangers of such conditions.[63] William Bradford created detailed paintings of sailing ships set in arctic coasts and was fascinated by icebergs.[64] Albert Bierstadt made studies on arctic trips aboard steamships in 1883 and 1884 that were the basis of his paintings of arctic scenes with colossal icebergs made in the studio.[65]

American poet, Lydia Sigourney, wrote the poem "Icebergs". While on a return journey from Europe in 1841, her steamship encountered a field of icebergs overnight, during an Aurora Borealis. The ship made it through unscathed to the next morning, when the sun rose and "touched the crowns, Of all those arctic kings."[66]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Iceberg Formation: International Ice Patrol. dead. International Ice Patrol. 2021-08-23. 2017-05-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20170509054249/https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/iip/Iceberg_Formation.pdf.
  2. Web site: iceberg . 2024-07-06. Cambridge Dictionary.
  3. Web site: Common Misconceptions about Icebergs and Glaciers . 19 July 2011 . Ohio State University . Icebergs float in salt water, but they are formed from freshwater glacial ice..
  4. Web site: bergy bit . National Snow and Ice Data Center . 2024-07-16.
  5. Web site: Bergy Bits and Growlers . www.athropolis.com . 2019-12-01.
  6. Remy. J.-P.. Becquevort. S.. Haskell. T.G.. Tison. J.-L.. December 2008. Impact of the B-15 iceberg "stranding event" on the physical and biological properties of sea ice in McMurdo Sound, Ross Sea, Antarctica. Antarctic Science. en. 20. 6. 593–604. 10.1017/S0954102008001284. 2008AntSc..20..593R. 73604210. 0954-1020.
  7. 1956. Antarctica shed a 208-mile-long berg in 1956. 43. 18. The Polar Times. . https://web.archive.org/web/20060522193438/https://www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/coldscience/2005-01-20-1956-antarctic-iceberg_x.htm . 2006-05-22 . dead.
  8. Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary. Iceberg. 2006-03-26.
  9. Web site: Iceberg Classification Systems.
  10. Web site: Facts on Icebergs . Canadian Geographic . 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060331032737/https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/MA06/indepth/justthefacts.asp . 2006-03-31 . dead.
  11. Carlson . Daniel F. . Boone . Wieter . Meire . Lorenz . Abermann . Jakob . Rysgaard . Søren . 2017-08-28 . Bergy Bit and Melt Water Trajectories in Godthåbsfjord (SW Greenland) Observed by the Expendable Ice Tracker . Frontiers in Marine Science . 4 . 276 . 10.3389/fmars.2017.00276 . 2296-7745 . free.
  12. Bigg . Grant R. . Wadley . Martin R. . Stevens . David P. . Johnson . John A. . October 1997 . Modelling the dynamics and thermodynamics of icebergs . Cold Regions Science and Technology . en . 26 . 2 . 113–135 . 10.1016/S0165-232X(97)00012-8. 1997CRST...26..113B .
  13. Crawford . Anna . Mueller . Derek . Joyal . Gabriel . 2018-04-08 . Surveying Drifting Icebergs and Ice Islands: Deterioration Detection and Mass Estimation with Aerial Photogrammetry and Laser Scanning . Remote Sensing . en . 10 . 4 . 575 . 10.3390/rs10040575 . 2018RemS...10..575C . 2072-4292 . free. 10023/16996 . free .
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  15. Hester . Eric W. . McConnochie . Craig D. . Cenedese . Claudia . Couston . Louis-Alexandre . Vasil . Geoffrey . Aspect ratio affects iceberg melting . Physical Review Fluids . 12 February 2021 . 6 . 2 . 023802 . 10.1103/PhysRevFluids.6.023802. 2009.10281 . 2021PhRvF...6b3802H .
  16. Meroni . Agostino N. . McConnochie . Craig D. . Cenedese . Claudia . Sutherland . Bruce . Snow . Kate . Nonlinear influence of the Earth's rotation on iceberg melting . Journal of Fluid Mechanics . 10 January 2019 . 858 . 832–851 . 10.1017/jfm.2018.798. 2019JFM...858..832M . 126234419 .
  17. Scholander . P. F. . Nutt . D. C. . 1960 . Bubble Pressure in Greenland Icebergs . Journal of Glaciology . en . 3 . 28 . 671–678 . 10.3189/S0022143000017950 . 0022-1430 . free.
  18. Glowacki . Oskar . Deane . Grant B. . Moskalik . Mateusz . 2018-05-16 . The Intensity, Directionality, and Statistics of Underwater Noise From Melting Icebergs . Geophysical Research Letters . en . 45 . 9 . 4105–4113 . 10.1029/2018GL077632 . 2018GeoRL..45.4105G . 135352794 . 0094-8276. free .
  19. MacAyeal. Douglas R.. Abbot. Dorian S.. Sergienko. Olga V.. 2011. Iceberg-capsize tsunamigenesis. Annals of Glaciology. en. 52. 58. 51–56. 10.3189/172756411797252103. 2011AnGla..52...51M. 0260-3055. free.
  20. Web site: Flipping Icebergs . ScienceNews for Students . Stephen Ornes . April 3, 2012 . June 9, 2019.
  21. Web site: Study Reveals What Happens During A 'Glacial Earthquake' . NPR . Nell Greenfieldboyce . June 25, 2015 . March 9, 2021.
  22. Web site: Icebergs Can Be Green, Black, Striped, Even Rainbow . Scientific American . Katherine Wright . January 5, 2018 . June 9, 2019.
  23. Web site: Roach . Lettie . Image of the Week - Super-cool colours of icebergs . EGU Blogs . 11 January 2019 . European Geosciences Union . 6 November 2020.
  24. Web site: Sizes and Shapes of Icebergs. International Ice Patrol. 2006-12-20.
  25. Weeks, W.F. (2010), On Sea Ice, University of Alaska Press, p. 399
  26. Web site: Iceberg Physiology. Canadian Geographic. 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060331032649/https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ma06/indepth/nathistory.asp. 2006-03-31. dead. Holly Gordon.
  27. Web site: Envisat. European Space Agency. 2011-03-09.
  28. Web site: Canadian Geographic. Ainslie MacLellan. Tracking Monsters. 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20061031234546/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ma06/indepth/technology.asp. 2006-10-31. dead.
  29. Web site: New Iceberg Breaks off Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica. NOAA. 15 October 1998. 2011-03-09.
  30. https://atlanticcanadaoffshore.ca/ice-management-newfoundland-labradors-offshore-industry/ Ice-management, Newfoundland Labrador offshore-industry
  31. News: Maynard . Matt . Iceberg towing: a bizarre 'solution' to the freshwater crisis . 15 January 2024 . Geographical . 12 June 2022.
  32. Web site: Why a Middle Eastern business thirsty for water can't just tow an iceberg from Antarctica. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 14 August 2019.
  33. Web site: Home Page . Polewater . September 8, 2021.
  34. Web site: $166 Water Could Dictate International Iceberg Law . . Matthew H. Birkhold . October 31, 2019 . September 8, 2021.
  35. Web site: Newfoundland Gives Whole New Meaning To Ice Cold Beer . . Emma Jacobs . February 29, 2012 . September 8, 2021.
  36. Yankovsky. Alexander E.. Yashayaev. Igor. September 2014. Surface buoyant plumes from melting icebergs in the Labrador Sea. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. en. 91. 1–9. 10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.014. 2014DSRI...91....1Y.
  37. Stephenson. Gordon R.. Sprintall. Janet. Gille. Sarah T.. Vernet. Maria. Helly. John J.. Kaufmann. Ronald S.. June 2011. Subsurface melting of a free-floating Antarctic iceberg. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. en. 58. 11–12. 1336–1345. 10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.11.009. 2011DSRII..58.1336S.
  38. Ardhuin. Fabrice. Tournadre. Jean. Queffeulou. Pierre. Girard-Ardhuin. Fanny. Collard. Fabrice. January 2011. Observation and parameterization of small icebergs: Drifting breakwaters in the southern ocean. Ocean Modelling. en. 39. 3–4. 405–410. 10.1016/j.ocemod.2011.03.004. 2011OcMod..39..405A.
  39. Duprat. Luis P. A. M.. Bigg. Grant R.. Wilton. David J.. March 2016. Enhanced Southern Ocean marine productivity due to fertilization by giant icebergs. Nature Geoscience. en. 9. 3. 219–221. 10.1038/ngeo2633. 2016NatGe...9..219D. 1752-0894.
  40. Hopwood. Mark J.. Carroll. Dustin. Höfer. Juan. Achterberg. Eric P.. Meire. Lorenz. Le Moigne. Frédéric A. C.. Bach. Lennart T.. Eich. Charlotte. Sutherland. David A.. González. Humberto E.. December 2019. Highly variable iron content modulates iceberg-ocean fertilisation and potential carbon export. Nature Communications. en. 10. 1. 5261. 10.1038/s41467-019-13231-0. 2041-1723. 6868171. 31748607. 2019NatCo..10.5261H.
  41. Wu. Shuang-Ye. Hou. Shugui. 2017-03-17. Impact of icebergs on net primary productivity in the Southern Ocean. The Cryosphere. en. 11. 2. 707–722. 10.5194/tc-11-707-2017. 2017TCry...11..707W. 1994-0424. free.
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  43. Web site: Alaskan storm cracks giant iceberg to pieces in faraway Antarctica.
  44. MacAyeal. Douglas R. Okal. Emile A. Aster. Richard C. Bassis. Jeremy N. Brunt. Kelly M. Cathles. L. Mac. Drucker. Robert. Fricker. Helen A. Kim. Young-Jin. Martin. Seelye. Okal. Marianne H. 2006. Transoceanic wave propagation links iceberg calving margins of Antarctica with storms in tropics and Northern Hemisphere. Geophysical Research Letters. 33. 17. L17502. 2006GeoRL..3317502M. 10.1029/2006GL027235. free. Sponsler. Mark P. Thom. Jonathan E. Olga V. Sergienko.
  45. Web site: Iceberg A-38B off South Georgia. Visible Earth. 2011-03-09. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20081005164529/http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=6831. 2008-10-05.
  46. News: Shipping alert issued over giant iceberg. Associated Press. December 11, 2009.
  47. News: Huge ice sheet breaks from Greenland glacier. BBC. 2011-03-09. 2010-08-07.
  48. Web site: Massive Iceberg Crashes into Island, Splits in Two. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20110310053924/http://www.aolnews.com/2010/09/11/giant-ice-island-splits-near-greenland/. 2011-03-10.
  49. News: Massive ice island heading for southern Labrador . CBC News . 2011-06-23.
  50. News: Lendon . Brad . 22 April 2014 . Iceberg is twice the size of Atlanta . CNN.
  51. News: Iceberg four times the size of London breaks off from Antarctica ice shelf. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/07/12/iceberg-four-times-size-london-breaks-antarctica-ice-shelf/ . 2022-01-12 . subscription . live. 14 July 2017. The Telegraph.
  52. Web site: Pine Island Glacier Quickly Drops Another Iceberg. Nasa Earth Observatory. 8 November 2018. NASA. 12 November 2018.
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  54. Web site: Brunt Ice Shelf in Antarctica calves . 26 February 2021 . British Antarctic Survey.
  55. Web site: Iceberg A-74 Calves from the Brunt Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea . LT Falon M. Essary . 1 March 2021 . U.S. National Ice Center.
  56. Web site: World's largest iceberg breaks off from Antarctica . 19 May 2021 . CNN.com.
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  58. Web site: An Iceberg 30 Times the Size of Manhattan Is About to Break Off Antarctica. Maddie Stone. Gizmodo. February 21, 2019. September 3, 2023.
  59. Web site: An iceberg 5 times bigger than Manhattan just broke off from Antarctica. Lorraine Chow. Business Insider. November 1, 2018. October 27, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191027051017/https://www.businessinsider.com/iceberg-bigger-manhattan-broke-antarctica-2018-11. October 27, 2019. live.
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  62. Web site: The Icebergs . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230719235827/https://dma.org/art/collection/object/4171219 . July 19, 2023 . March 7, 2024 . Dallas Museum of Art.
  63. Web site: Online Collection - Caspar David Friedrich, The Sea of Ice, 1823/24 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220922122857/https://online-sammlung.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/en/objekt/HK-1051 . September 22, 2022 . March 7, 2024 . Hamburger Kunsthalle . German.
  64. Overeem . Irina . January 28, 2018 . Full article/ William Bradford/ Sailing Ships and Arctic Seas . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220426024031/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035[0541%3ABR]2.0.CO%3B2 . April 26, 2022 . March 7, 2024 . Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 35 . 4 . 541 . 10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035[0541:BR]2.0.CO;2 . 1523-0430 .
  65. Web site: Albert Bierstadt (1830-1902), Icebergs . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240308004355/https://www.christies.com.cn/en/lot/lot-6134527 . March 8, 2024 . March 8, 2024 . Christie's.
  66. Book: Sigourney, Lydia . Lydia Sigourney . . . 1850 . H. S. Parsons & Company.

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