Hypersonic flight explained

Hypersonic flight is flight through the atmosphere below altitudes of about 90km (60miles) at speeds greater than Mach 5, a speed where dissociation of air begins to become significant and high heat loads exist. Speeds over Mach 25 have been achieved below the thermosphere as of 2020.

Hypersonic vehicles are able to maneuver through the atmosphere in a non-parabolic trajectory, but their aerodynamic heat loads need to be managed (see figure to the right).

History

The first manufactured object to achieve hypersonic flight was the two-stage Bumper rocket, consisting of a WAC Corporal second stage set on top of a V-2 first stage. In February 1949, at White Sands, the rocket reached a speed of, or about Mach 6.7.[1] The vehicle, however, burned on atmospheric re-entry, and only charred remnants were found. In April 1961, Russian Major Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel at hypersonic speed, during the world's first piloted orbital flight. Soon after, in May 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American and second person to fly hypersonic when his capsule reentered the atmosphere at a speed above Mach 5 at the end of his suborbital flight over the Atlantic Ocean.[2]

In November 1961, Air Force Major Robert White flew the X-15 research aircraft at speeds over Mach 6.[3] [4] On 3 October 1967, in California, an X-15 reached Mach 6.7.[5] The reentry problem of a space vehicle was extensively studied.[6] The NASA X-43A flew on scramjet for 10 seconds, and then glided for 10 minutes on its last flight in 2004. The Boeing X-51 Waverider flew on scramjet for 210 seconds in 2013, finally reaching Mach 5.1 on its fourth flight test. The hypersonic regime has since become the subject for further study during the 21st century, and strategic competition between the United States, India, Russia, and China.[7]

Physics

See main article: Hypersonic speed.

Stagnation point

The stagnation point of air flowing around a body is a point where its local velocity is zero. At this point the air flows around this location. A shock wave forms, which deflects the air from the stagnation point and insulates the flight body from the atmosphere. This can affect the lifting ability of a flight surface to counteract its drag and subsequent free fall.[8]

In order to maneuver in the atmosphere at faster speeds than supersonic, the forms of propulsion can still be airbreathing systems, but a ramjet does not suffice for a system to attain Mach 5, as a ramjet slows down the airflow to subsonic. Some systems (waveriders) use a first stage rocket to boost a body into the hypersonic regime. Other systems (boost-glide vehicles) use scramjets after their initial boost, in which the speed of the air passing through the scramjet remains supersonic. Other systems (munitions) use a cannon for their initial boost.[9]

High temperature effect

Hypersonic flow is a high energy flow.[10] The ratio of kinetic energy to the internal energy of the gas increases as the square of the Mach number. When this flow enters a boundary layer, there are high viscous effects due to the friction between air and the high-speed object. In this case, the high kinetic energy is converted in part to internal energy and gas energy is proportional to the internal energy. Therefore, hypersonic boundary layers are high temperature regions due to the viscous dissipation of the flow's kinetic energy. Another region of high temperature flow is the shock layer behind the strong bow shock wave. In the case of the shock layer, the flow's velocity decreases discontinuously as it passes through the shock wave. This results in a loss of kinetic energy and a gain of internal energy behind the shock wave. Due to high temperatures behind the shock wave, dissociation of molecules in the air becomes thermally active. For example, for air at T > 2000K, dissociation of diatomic oxygen into oxygen radicals is active: O2 → 2O[11] [12] [13] For T > 4000K, dissociation of diatomic nitrogen into N radicals is active: N2 → 2N[11] Consequently, in this temperature range, a plasma forms:[14] —molecular dissociation followed by recombination of oxygen and nitrogen radicals produces nitric oxide: N2 + O2 → 2NO, which then dissociates and recombines to form ions: N + O → NO+ + e−[11] [15]

Low density flow

At standard sea-level condition for air, the mean free path of air molecules is about

λ=68nm

. Low density air is much thinner. At an altitude of 104km (65miles) the mean free path is

λ=1ft=0.305m

. Because of this large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum begin to break down, therefore aerodynamics must be considered from kinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow.For a given aerodynamic condition low-density effects depends on the value of a nondimensional parameter called the Knudsen number

Kn

, defined as
Kn=λ
l
where

l

is the typical length scale of the object considered. The value of the Knudsen number based on nose radius,
Kn=λ
R
, can be near one. Hypersonic vehicles frequently fly at very high altitudes and therefore encounter low-density conditions. Hence, the design and analysis of hypersonic vehicles sometimes require consideration of low-density flow. New generations of hypersonic airplanes may spend a considerable portion of their mission at high altitudes, and for these vehicles, low-density effects will become more significant.

Thin shock layer

The flow field between the shock wave and the body surface is called the shock layer. As the Mach number M increases, the angle of the resulting shock wave decreases. This Mach angle is described by the equation

\mu=\sin-1(a/v)

where a is the speed of the sound wave and v is the flow velocity. Since M=v/a, the equation becomes

\mu=\sin-1(1/M)

. Higher Mach numbers position the shock wave closer to the body surface, thus at hypersonic speeds, the shock wave lies extremely close to the body surface, resulting in a thin shock layer. At low Reynolds number, the boundary layer grows quite thick and merges with the shock wave, leading to a fully viscous shock layer.[16]

Viscous interaction

The compressible flow boundary layer increases proportionately to the square of the Mach number, and inversely to the square root of the Reynolds number. At hypersonic speeds, this effect becomes much more pronounced, due to the exponential reliance on the Mach number. Since the boundary layer becomes so large, it interacts more viscously with the surrounding flow. The overall effect of this interaction is to create a much higher skin friction than normal, causing greater surface heat flow. Additionally, the surface pressure spikes, which results in a much larger aerodynamic drag coefficient. This effect is extreme at the leading edge and decreases as a function of length along the surface.

Entropy layer

The entropy layer is a region of large velocity gradients caused by the strong curvature of the shock wave. The entropy layer begins at the nose of the aircraft and extends downstream close to the body surface. Downstream of the nose, the entropy layer interacts with the boundary layer which causes an increase in aerodynamic heating at the body surface. Although the shock wave at the nose at supersonic speeds is also curved, the entropy layer is only observed at hypersonic speeds because the magnitude of the curve is far greater at hypersonic speeds.

Propulsion

Controlled detonation

Researchers in China have used shock waves in a detonation chamber to compress ionized argon plasma waves moving at Mach 14. The waves are directed into magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generators to create a current pulse that could be scaled up to gigawatt scale, given enough argon gas to feed into the MHD generators.[17]

Rotating detonation

A rotating detonation engine (RDE)[18] might propel airframes in hypersonic flight; on 14 December 2023 engineers at GE Aerospace demonstrated their test rig, which is to combine an RDE with a ramjet/scramjet, in order to evaluate the regimes of rotating detonation combustion. The goal is to achieve sustainable turbine-based combined cycle (TBCC) propulsion systems, at speeds between Mach 1 and Mach 5.[19] [20] [21]

Applications

Shipping

Transport consumes energy for three purposes: overcoming gravity, overcoming air/water friction, and achieving terminal velocity. The reduced trip times and higher flight altitudes reduce the first two, while increasing the third. Proponents claim that the net energy costs of hypersonic transport can be lower than those of conventional transport while slashing journey times.

Stratolaunch Roc can be used to launch hypersonic aircraft.[22]

Hermeus demonstrated transition from turbojet aircraft engine operation to ramjet operation on 17 November 2022,[23] thus avoiding the need to boost aircraft velocities by rocket or scramjet.[24]

See: SR-72, § Mayhem

Weapons

Two main types of hypersonic weapons are hypersonic cruise missiles and hypersonic glide vehicles.[25] Hypersonic weapons, by definition, travel five or more times the speed of sound. Hypersonic cruise missiles, which are powered by scramjets, are limited to below 30km (20miles); hypersonic glide vehicles can travel higher.

Hypersonic vehicles are much slower than ballistic (i.e. sub-orbital or fractional orbital) missiles, because they travel in the atmosphere, and ballistic missiles travel in the vacuum above the atmosphere. However, they can use the atmosphere to manoeuvre, making them capable of large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory. A hypersonic glide vehicle is usually launched with a ballistic first stage, then deploys wings and switches to hypersonic flight as it re-enters the atmosphere, allowing the final stage to evade all existing nuclear missile defense systems, which were designed for ballistic-only missiles.[26]

According to a CNBC July 2019 report (and now in a CNN 2022 report), Russia and China lead in hypersonic weapon development, trailed by the United States,[27] [28] [29] [7] [30] and in this case the problem is being addressed in a joint program of the entire Department of Defense.[31] To meet this development need, the US Army is participating in a joint program with the US Navy and Air Force, to develop a hypersonic glide body. India is also developing such weapons.[32] France and Australia may also be pursuing the technology. Japan is acquiring both scramjet (Hypersonic Cruise Missile), and boost-glide weapons (Hyper Velocity Gliding Projectile).[33]

China

China's XingKong-2 (星空二号, Starry-sky-2), a waverider, had its first flight 3 August 2018.[34] [35] [36] [37] In August 2021 China launched a boost-glide vehicle to low-earth orbit, circling Earth before maneuvering toward its target location, missing its target by two dozen miles.[38] [39] However China has responded that the vehicle was a spacecraft, and not a missile;[40] there was a July 2021 test of a spaceplane, according to Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian;[41] [42] Todd Harrison points out that an orbital trajectory would take 90 minutes for a spaceplane to circle Earth (which would defeat the mission of a weapon in hypersonic flight).[43] The US DoD's headquarters (The Pentagon) reported in October 2021 that two such hypersonic launches have occurred; one launch did not demonstrate the accuracy needed for a precision weapon; the second launch by China demonstrated its ability to change trajectories, according to Pentagon reports on the 2021 competition in arms capabilities.[44]

In 2022, China unveiled two more hypersonic models.[45] [46] An AI simulation has revealed that a Mach 11 aircraft can simply outrun a Mach 1.3 fighter attempting to engage it, while firing its missile at the "pursuing" fighter.[47] This strategy entails a fire control system to accomplish an over-the-shoulder missile launch, which does not yet exist (2023).[47]

In February 2023, the DF-27 covered 1900km (1,200miles) in 12 minutes, according to leaked secret documents.[48] The capability directly threatens Guam, and US Navy aircraft carriers.[48]

Russia

In 2016, Russia is believed to have conducted two successful tests of Avangard, a hypersonic glide vehicle. The third known test, in 2017, failed.[49] In 2018, an Avangard was launched at the Dombarovskiy missile base, reaching its target at the Kura shooting range, a distance of 5955km (3,700miles).[50] Avangard uses new composite materials which are to withstand temperatures of up to 2000C. The Avangard's environment at hypersonic speeds reaches such temperatures.[51] Russia considered its carbon fiber solution to be unreliable, and replaced it with new composite materials. Two Avangard hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs) will first be mounted on SS-19 ICBMs; on 27 December 2019 the weapon was first fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in the Orenburg Oblast.[52] In an earlier report, Franz-Stefan Gady named the unit as the 13th Regiment/Dombarovskiy Division (Strategic Missile Force).[53] In 2021 Russia launched a 3M22 Zircon antiship missile over the White Sea, as part of a series of tests.[54] "Kinzhal and Zircon (Tsirkon) are standoff strike weapons".[55] In February 2022, a coordinated series of missile exercises, some of them hypersonic, were launched on 18 February 2022 in an apparent display of power projection. The launch platforms ranged from submarines in the Barents sea in the Arctic, as well as from ships on the Black sea to the south of Russia. The exercise included a RS-24 Yars ICBM, which was launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Northern Russia until it reached its destination on the Kamchatka Peninsula in Eastern Russia.[56] Ukraine estimated a 3M22 Zircon was used against it, but apparently did not exceed Mach 3 and was shot down 7 February 2024 in Kyiv.[57]

United States

See also: Prompt Global Strike. These tests have prompted US responses in weapons development.[58] By 2018, the AGM-183[59] and Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon were in development per John Hyten's USSTRATCOM statement on 8 August 2018 (UTC).[60] At least one vendor is developing ceramics to handle the temperatures of hypersonics systems.[61] There are over a dozen US hypersonics projects as of 2018, notes the commander of USSTRATCOM;[62] [63] [64] [65] [66] from which a future hypersonic cruise missile is sought, perhaps by Q4 FY2021.[67] [68] [69] The Long range precision fires (LRPF) CFT is supporting Space and Missile Defense Command's pursuit of hypersonics. Joint programs in hypersonics are informed by Army work;[70] however, at the strategic level, the bulk of the hypersonics work remains at the Joint level. Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF) is an Army priority, and also a DoD joint effort.[71] The Army and Navy's Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) had a successful test of a prototype in March 2020.[72] [73] A wind tunnel for testing hypersonic vehicles was completed in Texas (2021).[74] The Army's Land-based Hypersonic Missile "is intended to have a range of 2300km (1,400miles)". [75] [76] [77] [78] By adding rocket propulsion to a shell or glide body, the joint effort shaved five years off the likely fielding time for hypersonic weapon systems.[79] [80] Countermeasures against hypersonics will require sensor data fusion: both radar and infrared sensor tracking data will be required to capture the signature of a hypersonic vehicle in the atmosphere. There are also privately developed hypersonic systems,[81] as well as critics.[82] [83]

DoD tested a Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) in 2020.[72] [84] The Air Force dropped out of the tri-service hypersonic project in 2020, leaving only the Army and Navy on the C-HGB.[85] [86] [87] According to Air Force chief scientist, Dr. Greg Zacharias, the US anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s,[88] hypersonic drones by the 2030s, and recoverable hypersonic drone aircraft by the 2040s.[89] The focus of DoD development will be on air-breathing boost-glide hypersonics systems.[90] Countering hypersonic weapons during their cruise phase will require radar with longer range, as well as space-based sensors, and systems for tracking and fire control.[91] [92] A mid-2021 report from the Congressional Research Service states the United States is "unlikely" to field an operational hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) until 2023.[93]

On 21 October 2021, the Pentagon stated that a test of a hypersonic glide body failed to complete because its booster failed; according to Lt. Cmdr. Timothy Gorman the booster was not part of the equipment under test, but the booster's failure mode will be reviewed to improve the test setup.[94] The test occurred at Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska, on Kodiak island.[95] Three rocketsondes at Wallops Island completed successful tests earlier that week, for the hypersonics effort. On 29 October 2021 the booster rocket for the Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon was successfully tested in a static test; the first stage thrust vector control system control system was included.[96] On 26 October 2022 Sandia National Laboratories conducted a successful test of hypersonic technologies at Wallops Island.[97] [98] On 28 June 2024 DoD announced a successful recent end-to-end test of the US Army's Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon all-up round (AUR) and the US Navy's Conventional Prompt Strike. The missile was launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility, Kauai, Hawaii.[99]

In September 2021, and in March 2022, US vendors Raytheon/Northrop Grumman, and Lockheed respectively, first successfully tested their air-launched, scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles, which were funded by DARPA. By September 2022 Raytheon was selected for fielding Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM), a scramjet-powered hypersonic missile by FY2027.[100]

In March 2024 Stratolaunch Roc launched TA-1, a vehicle which is nearing Mach 5 at 10.67km (06.63miles) in a powered flight, a risk-reduction exercise for TA-2.[101] In a similar development Castelion launched its low-cost hypersonic platform in the Mojave desert, in March 2024.[102]

Iran

In 2022, Iran was believed to have constructed their first hypersonic missile. Amir Ali Hajizadeh, the commander of the Air Force of the Islamic Republic of Iran's Revolutionary Guards Corps, announced the construction of the Islamic Republic's first hypersonic missile. He noted: "This new missile was produced to counter air defense shields and passes through all missile defense systems and which represents a big leap in the generation of missiles"[103] and has a speed above Mach 13.[104] but Col. Rob Lodwick, the spokesman for the Pentagon on Middle East affairs said that there are doubts in this regard.[105]

In 2021, DoD was codifying flight test guidelines, knowledge gained from Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS), and the other hypersonics programs,[106] for some 70 hypersonics R&D programs alone, as of 2021.[107] In 2021-2023, Heidi Shyu, the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (USD(R&E)) is pursuing a program of annual rapid joint experiments,[108] including hypersonics capabilities, to bring down their cost of development.[109] [110] A hypersonic test bed aims to bring the frequency of tests to one per week.[111] [112]

Other programsFrance,[93] Australia,[93] India,[113] Germany,[93] Japan,[93] South Korea,[114] North Korea,[115] and Iran[116] also have hypersonic weapon research programs.[93]

Australia and the US have begun joint development of air-launched hypersonic missiles, as announced by a Pentagon statement on 30 November 2020. The development will build on the $54 million Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation (HIFiRE) under which both nations collaborated on over a 15-year period.[117] Small and large companies will all contribute to the development of these hypersonic missiles,[118] named SCIFIRE in 2022.[119] [120]

Defenses

In May 2023 Ukraine shot down a Kinzhal with a Patriot.[121] IBCS, or the Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System is an Integrated Air and Missile Defense (IAMD) capability designed to work with Patriots and other missiles.

Rand 2017 assessmentRand Corporation (28 September 2017) estimates there is less than a decade to prevent Hypersonic Missile proliferation.[122] In the same way that anti-ballistic missiles were developed as countermeasures to ballistic missiles, counter-countermeasures to hypersonics systems were not yet in development, as of 2019.[123] [124] [125] [126] See the National Defense Space Architecture (2021), above. But by 2019, $157.4 million was allocated in the FY2020 Pentagon budget for hypersonic defense, out of $2.6 billion for all hypersonic-related research.[127] $207 million of the FY2021 budget was allocated to defensive hypersonics, up from the FY2020 budget allocation of $157 million.[128] [129] Both the US and Russia withdrew from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in February 2019. This will spur arms development, including hypersonic weapons,[130] [131] in FY2021 and forward.[132] By 2021 the Missile Defense Agency was funding regional countermeasures against hypersonic weapons in their glide phase.[133] [134] [135] James Acton characterized the proliferation of hypersonic vehicles as never-ending in October 2021; Jeffery Lewis views the proliferation as additional arguments for ending the arms race.[136] Doug Loverro assesses that both missile defense and competition need rethinking.[137] CSIS assesses that hypersonic defense should be the US' priority over hypersonic weapons.[138] [139] [140]

NDSA / PWSA

As part of their Hypersonic vehicle tracking mission, the Space Development Agency (SDA) launched four satellites and the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) launched two satellites on 14 February 2024 (launch USSF-124).[141] [142] The satellites will share the same orbit, which allows the SDA's wide field of view (WFOV) satellites and the MDA's medium field of view (MFOV) downward-looking satellites to traverse the same terrain of Earth. The SDA's four satellites are part of its Tranche 0 tracking layer (T0TL). The MDA's two satellites are HBTSS or Hypersonic and ballistic tracking space sensors.

Additional capabilities of Tranche 0 of the National defense space architecture (NDSA), also known as the Proliferated warfighting space architecture (PWSA) will be tested over the next two years.[143]

Proposed

Aircraft:
Bombers:
Cruise missiles:
Glide vehicles:

Flown

Aircraft:
Glide vehicles:
Spaceplanes:

Cancelled

Aircraft:
Spaceplanes:

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: V-2 missile . Frank . Winter . airandspace.si.edu . 3 August 2000 . Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum . 16 August 2018 . 4 January 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170104162919/https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/missile-surface-surface-v-2-4 . dead .
  2. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/milestones/earthinspace.html Altitude reached: 116 miles, velocity reached: 5134 mph
  3. Web site: White . Robert . Across the Hypersonic Divide . HistoryNet . HistoryNet LLC. 11 October 2015.
  4. News: Hypersonic plane passes latest test . ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) . 22 March 2010 . 18 February 2014.
  5. Web site: NASA Dryden Fact Sheets - X-15 Hypersonic Research Program . Yvonne . Gibbs . 13 August 2015 . NASA.
  6. Alfred J. Eggers, H. Julian Allen, Stanford Neice (10 December 1954), "A comparative analysis of the performance of long-range hypervelocity vehicles", NACA report 1382, pp. 1141–1160
  7. In, for example Waverider hypersonic weapons delivery, China has flown a Mach 5.5 vehicle for 400 seconds, at 30 km altitude, demonstrating large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory, as well as recovery of the payload. See

    Current test targets, such as Zombie Pathfinder are not hypersonic. Rand Corporation (28 September 2017) Hypersonic Missile Nonproliferation estimates there is less than a decade to prevent Hypersonic Missile proliferation.

  8. Web site: MIT "Fluids" 1. Effects of Reynolds Number 2. Effects of Mach Number. 9 October 2020.
  9. Jared Keller Web site: Watch the Air Force use a hypersonic bullet to blast a drone out of the sky . 15 September 2020.
  10. Anderson, John (2016). Introduction to Flight (Eighth ed.) McGraw-Hill Education
  11. B. deB. Darwent, National Bureau of Standards (Jan 1970) Table of Bond Dissociation Energies in Simple Molecules BDE: bond dissociation enthalpy
  12. Jim Clark (12 Feb 2022)Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Textbook Maps/Supplemental Modules (Physical and Theoretical Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Energies and_Potentials/Enthalpy/Bond Bond Enthalpies
  13. Answered by ron, stack exchange (29 May 2014) Will heating diatomic oxygen enough break the O=O bonds?
  14. Jan Tegler (4 Oct 2019) Research at Hyper Speed: The Pentagon's Research Laboratories Are Working Flat Out to Develop Hypersonic Weapons Technology operating at 8000K
  15. Anthony Capaccio (28 Mar 2023) U.S. Hypersonic Missile Test Marred by In-Flight Data Loss ARRW plagued by loss of telemetry data in the latest test
  16. Web site: 6 April 2018 . Mach Angle . Glenn Research Center, NASA .
  17. Tim Newcomb (6 Feb 2023) China Built a Hypersonic Generator That Could Power Unimaginable Weapons
  18. MRO Business Today (9 Oct 2023) RTX to build Gambit engine for DARPA; PRnewswire (4 Oct 2023) RTX to develop rotating detonation engine for DARPA
  19. Joseph Trevithic (14 Dec 2023) GE's Breakthrough In 'Detonating' Hypersonic Propulsion Is A Big Deal; GE Aerospace (14 Dec 2023) GE Aerospace Demonstrates Hypersonic Dual-Mode Ramjet with Rotating Detonation Combustion
  20. Eric Berger (27 Mar 2024) The company building a rotating detonation engine is pushing the tech forward Venus Aerospace: Mach 0.9 at 12,000 feet
  21. Peter Ray Allison Superfast drone fitted with new 'rotating detonation rocket engine' approaches the speed of sound
  22. Camille Fine (20 Jan 2023) The biggest plane in the world has wings longer than a football field. See its latest flight
  23. Web site: Hermeus Completes Hypersonic Engine Milestone . 2022-11-17 . Hermeus . en-US.
  24. Valerie Insinna (28 Mar 2024) Hermeus rolls out new uncrewed aircraft as company edges toward goal of hypersonic flight
  25. Web site: Hypersonic Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress . Congressional Research Service.
  26. Mark Zastrow (2021-11-04), "How does China's hypersonic glide vehicle work?", Astronomy
  27. CNN (1 Jun 2022) Russia and China are ahead of US in hypersonic missile technology. Here's why
  28. Valerie Insinna (2 Jun 2022) Lockheed’s CEO wants to fund a hypersonic wind tunnel, but says DoD isn’t buying in
  29. Web site: Hypersonic weapons are the center of a new arms race between China, the US and Russia . Jeff Morganteen, Andrea . Miller . 26 September 2019 . CNBC.
  30. https://www.upi.com/DARPA-issues-contract-proposition-for-hypersonic-missile-defense/4311542213243/ Stephen Carlson (14 Nov 2018) DARPA issues contract proposition for hypersonic missile defense
  31. Sydney Freedberg, Jr. Web site: Army Warhead Is Key To Joint Hypersonics . Justin . Katz . 22 August 2018.
  32. Web site: 7 September 2020 . India successfully test-fires hypersonic missile carrier, 4th country to achieve the feat . 8 September 2020 . ThePrint.
  33. Web site: Japan unveils its hypersonic weapons plans . Mike . Yeo . 13 March 2020 . Defense News.
  34. https://www.scmp.com/video/china/2158510/china-tests-hypersonic-aircraft-starry-sky-2 "China tests waverider hypersonic aircraft Starry Sky-2"
  35. News: China successfully tests first hypersonic aircraft that can carry nuclear warheads – Times of India . The Times of India. 6 August 2018 .
  36. Web site: Youtube clip XingKong-2 hypersonic aircraft (Starry Sky-2) . YouTube. 9 October 2020.
  37. https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-development-of-hypersonic-missiles-and-thought-on-hypersonic-defense/ Holmes Liao (8 Oct 2021) China's Development of Hypersonic Missiles and Thought on Hypersonic Defense Publication: China Brief Volume: 21 Issue: 19
  38. Tyler Rogoway (16 Oct 2021) China Tested A Fractional Orbital Bombardment System That Uses A Hypersonic Glide Vehicle: Report
  39. News: China surprises U.S. with hypersonic missile test, FT reports . Reuters . 17 October 2021 . www.reuters.com.
  40. Hannah Ritchie, CNN (18 October 2021) China denies testing a nuclear-capable hypersonic missile, says it was a spacecraft
  41. Web site: China's Claim That Its Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Was A Spaceplane Test Doesn't Add Up (Updated) . Joseph . Trevithick . The Drive. 18 October 2021 .
  42. Demetri Sevastopulo, Washington (OCTOBER 20 2021) China conducted two hypersonic weapons tests this summer
  43. Web site: After China's 'Hypersonic' Test, US Alarm And Many Unanswered Questions . Theresa . Hitchens . 19 October 2021.
  44. David E Sanger, and William J Broad The New York Times (28 Oct 2021) "China, Testing New Weapon, Jolts Pentagon"
  45. Mike Yeo (10 Nov 2022) China displays air-launched hypersonic missile at air show near Taiwan Mockups of 2PZD-21 thought to be air-launched versions of YJ-21
  46. Tanmay Kadam (13 Nov 2022) China Unveils World's 1st Carrier-Based Hypersonic Anti-Ship Missile 'YJ-21' That Can 'Strike The Eagle' "China has finally unveiled its 'YJ-21', or the 'Eagle Strike 21' shipborne hypersonic anti-ship missile that has long been shrouded in mystery. The missile has been put on display at the ongoing Zhuhai Air Show".
  47. Stephen Chen, SCMP (28 Feb 2023) Chinese AI simulates hypersonic air battle, offering surprising tactic for winning Mach 11 dogfight
  48. Geoff Ziezulewicz (18 Apr 2023) Pentagon: Yes, we are still lagging behind China's hypersonics DF-27
  49. News: Macias . Amanda . The Kremlin says it conducted another successful test of a hypersonic weapon . CNBC . 26 December 2018 . 27 December 2018.
  50. https://abcnews.go.com/beta-story-container/International/wireStory/russias-putin-oversees-test-hypersonic-weapon-60016274 "Putin crows as he oversees Russian hypersonic weapons test"
  51. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/hypersonic-nuclear-missile-russia_us_5c248de8e4b08aaf7a8dbc40 "Putin Says 'Invulnerable' New Hypersonic Nuclear Missile Is Ready For Deployment"
  52. Vladimir Isachenkov (27 December 2019) "New Russian weapon can travel 27 times the speed of sound", Associated Press. —Avangard has been fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in the Orenburg Oblast —News: 27 December 2019 . ru:На боевое дежурство заступил первый полк с "Авангардами" . RU . The first regiment with the 'Avangard' took up combat duty . Interfax .
  53. https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/russia-avangard-hypersonic-warhead-to-enter-service-in-coming-weeks/ Franz-Stefan Gady (14 November 2019) Russia: Avangard Hypersonic Warhead to Enter Service in Coming Weeks
  54. AP (29 Nov 2021) Russian Navy test-fires hypersonic missile in the White Sea
  55. Roger McDermott (7 Feb 2022) The Role of Hypersonic Weapons in Russian Military Strategy Giperzvukovogo Oruzhiya—(GZO); or Giperzvukovyye letatel’nyye apparaty—(GZLA) Kinzhal, Tsirkon, Kalibr, Poseidon, Avangard, Burevestnik, Sarmat,
  56. CNN (19 Feb 2022)
  57. Lewis Page Russia's 'Zircon' hypersonic super weapon has failed in Ukraine. Putin is egg-faced again
  58. Prakash Nanda, Eurasian Times (6 Nov 2022) Hypersonic Hype? This Is Why US 'Trails' Russia, China & Even North Korea In Hypersonic Missile Development
  59. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/14/lockheed-martin-gets-480-million-hypersonics-contract-from-pentagon.html "Lockheed Martin gets a second hypersonic weapons contract, this time for $480 million, as the US tries to keep pace with Russia and China"
  60. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/07/us-nuclear-commander-russia-and-china-are-not-our-friends.html USSTRATCOM
  61. Nick Stockton (27 December 2018), "Rotating Detonation Engines Could Propel Hypersonic Flight", Wired
  62. Colin Clark (28 Oct 2021) 'Hundreds' Of China Hypersonic Tests Vs. 9 US; Hyten Says US Moves Too Slowly
  63. Sydney Freedberg (13 March 2019), "Hypersonics Won't Repeat Mistakes Of F-35", Breaking Defense
    • "Navy: Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS)"
    • "Army: Land-Based Hypersonic Missile"
    • "Air Force: HCSW and ARRW"
    • "DARPA & Air Force: Tactical Boost-Glide (TBG) and Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC)"
  64. Joseph Trevithick (6 September 2018), "DARPA Starts Work On 'Glide Breaker' Hypersonic Weapons Defense Project", The Drive
  65. https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2020/01/us-aims-intimidate-china-hypersonics-once-it-solves-physics/162408/ Patrick Tucker (13 January 2020) The US Wants to Intimidate China with Hypersonics, Once It Solves the Physics
  66. Joseph Trevithic (6 August 2019), "Air Force Reveals Tests Of Supposed Record-Setting Scramjet Engine From Northrop Grumman"
  67. Web site: US Air Force launches study of another hypersonic cruise missile . Garrett . Reim2020-04-30T00:42:00+01:00 . Flight Global. 9 October 2020.
  68. THERESA HITCHENS and AARON MEHTA Web site: As Air Force Signals Hypersonic Doubts, Key Senators Want To Go Faster . 24 September 2021.
  69. Valerie Insinna (20 Dec 2021) Air Force hypersonic weapon runs into trouble after a third failed test
  70. Web site: Army Futures Command aims to tap into innovative culture in Austin and beyond . www.army.mil.
  71. Web site: Long-range precision fires modernization a joint effort, Army tech leader says . www.army.mil.
  72. https://breakingdefense.com/2020/03/hypersonics-army-navy-test-common-glide-body/ Sydney J. Freedberg Jr. (20 Mar 2020) Hypersonics: Army, Navy Test Common Glide Body
  73. https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2020/3/4/pentagon-to-spend-billions-mass-producing-hypersonic-weapons Jon Harper (4 March 2020) JUST IN: Pentagon to Spend Billions Mass-Producing Hypersonic Weapons
  74. University Strategic Communications (18 May, 2021) New hypersonic facility accelerates UTSA as leader in aerospace projects At 15m (49feet) long and weighing more than 3200kg (7,100lb), it operates at the UTSA Hypersonics Lab
  75. Justin Katz (2 Feb 2022) Pentagon developing ‘National Defense Science and Technology’ strategy: Memo 14 technologies
  76. Brandi Vincent (4 Feb 2022) Pentagon Previews New Tech Strategy, Updates Priorities List for upcoming National Defense Science and Technology Strategy
  77. Courtney Albon and Joe Gould (4 Feb 2022) Top Pentagon officials met with industry executives about hypersonics. What comes next? a range of concerns
  78. Naval News Staff (1 Nov 2022) Hypersonic Missiles: Evolution Or Revolution? summary overview
  79. Gary Sheftick Web site: Army aligning modernization programs with other services . www.army.mil.
  80. https://breakingdefense.com/2018/09/aiming-the-armys-thousand-mile-missiles/ Sydney J. Freedberg Jr. (11 September 2018) Aiming The Army's Thousand-Mile Missiles
  81. Colin Clark (19 June 2019), "Raytheon, Northrop Will 'Soon' Fly Hypersonic Cruise Missile", Breaking Defense, Paris Air Show, new additive-process materials to build the combustor of a scramjet; potential integration among members of an intercommunicating swarm of hypersonics systems.
  82. Shannon Bugos Web site: Congress Shouldn't Rubber-Stamp Hypersonic Weapons . Justin . Katz . 29 September 2021.
  83. Ashish Dangwal Web site: Hypersonic Missiles: US Draws Big Plan To Track, Intercept & Shoot-Down Chinese Super-Maneuverable Threats . 10 December 2021 . Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News.
  84. Web site: Pentagon to TestFly New Hypersonic Weapon This Year . www.nationaldefensemagazine.org.
  85. https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2020/04/21/dod_is_running_the_wrong_way_in_the_hypersonics_race_115218.html Bryan Clark (21 April 2020) DoD Is Running the Wrong Way in the Hypersonics Race
  86. JOSEPH TREVITHICK Web site: Air Force Bails On Tri-Service Hypersonic Weapon Project As Army, Navy Ask For More Money . Joseph . Trevithick . The Drive. 11 February 2020 .
  87. Web site: Lockheed Martin Hypersonic Conventional Strike Weapon (HCSW) Missile for US Air Force . YouTube. 9 October 2020. $928 million
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  89. Web site: Get Ready, Russia and China: America's Next Fighter Jet Will Dominate the Skies . Kris . Osborn . 12 August 2017 . The National Interest. 2 March 2018.
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  91. Loren Thompson (30 July 2019) "Defense Against Hypersonic Attack Is Becoming The Biggest Military Challenge Of The Trump Era"
  92. Paul McLeary (18 December 2019), "MDA Kickstarts New Way To Kill Hypersonic Missiles" MDA's Hypersonic Defense Weapon System – 4 Interceptors
  93. Kelley M. Sayler . June 8, 2021 . Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies . . July 22, 2021.
  94. Caitlin M Kenney One of Four Boosters Fails in Rapid-Fire Hypersonic Tests
  95. Oren Liebermann (21 October 2021, updated 22 Oct 21) Latest US military hypersonic test fails
  96. Mike Stone (29 Oct 2021) U.S. successfully tests hypersonic booster motor in Utah
  97. Mike Stone, Reuters (26 October 2022) Pentagon successfully flight tests hypersonic weapon components some 11 experiments: hypersonic communication and navigation equipment; materials that can withstand the atmospheric heating at hypersonic speeds
  98. Naval News Staff (28 October 2022) U.S. DoD Continues To Advance Hypersonic Capabilities
  99. US Department of Defense (28 Jun 2024) DOD Completes Flight Test of Hypersonic Missile
  100. Audrey Decker (28 Mar 2023) Failed Hypersonic Test Dims Air Force View of Lockheed Missile Air Force R&D funding for ARRW and HACM tests is $150 million and $380 million, respectively. "ARRW and HACM are just two of the U.S. military's hypersonic efforts; in all, the Pentagon is requesting $11 billion for hypersonic R&D in 2024"
  101. Passant Rabie (11 March 2024) Watch as World’s Largest Plane Releases Hypersonic Vehicle for Its First Powered Test Flight
  102. Mike Stone (11 March 2024) Hypersonic weapon startup Castelion has first prototype missile test
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  107. https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/space/2020/10/05/space-development-agency-orders-8-hypersonic-weapon-tracking-satellites/ Nathan Strout (5 Oct 2020) SpaceX, L3 to provide hypersonic tracking satellites for Space Development Agency
  108. Courtney Albon (27 Oct 2022) Pentagon’s Shyu, LaPlante push to get critical tech into production "Senators may halve request for Rapid Defense Experimentation Reserve funding without transition plan" (RDER funding for DoD R&E, A&S projects)
  109. Joe Gould Web site: 'Affordable' hypersonics, small business and sustainment lead DoD tech chief's priorities . Joe . Gould . 12 October 2021 . Defense News.
  110. Tate Nurkin (9 Feb 2022) To catch China and Russia in hypersonic race, US must embrace risk now
  111. Courtney Albon (8 Nov 2022) Pentagon test bed to ramp up development of hypersonics MACH-TB
  112. Courtney Albon (6 Jan 2023) Pentagon racing to restore US superiority in hypersonics Test Resource Management Center (TRMC) SkyRange seeks to convert 24 Global Hawks for testing hypersonics.
  113. World Affairs (22 Oct 2021) India Is One Of The Few Countries Working On Hypersonic Missiles : U.S. Congressional report BrahMos 2
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  119. Colin Clark (25 Jan 2022) Aussies unveil new hypersonics center, signal distance from Ukraine crisis
  120. Stephen Losey (22 Sep 2022) Raytheon wins $985M contract to develop hypersonic missile HACM possible fielding by FY2027
  121. Patrick Tucker (20 Sep 2023) Ukraine downed a hypersonic missile with a Patriot. What that says about the future of weapons
  122. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FyUTNRIuAqc "Hypersonic Missile Nonproliferation"
  123. Amanda Macias (21 March 2018), "Russia and China are 'aggressively developing' hypersonic weapons — here's what they are and why the US can't defend against them: America's top nuclear commander said the U.S. doesn't have defenses against hypersonic weapons. Russia and China are leading the way in developing hypersonic weapons.", CNBC
  124. Arie Egozi News: Putin unveils new nuclear missile, says 'listen to us now' . nbcnews.com. 2 March 2018.
  125. Amanda Macias (12 October 2018), "Russia hits a snag in developing a hypersonic weapon after Putin said it was already in production", CNBC
  126. Sydney Freedberg (1 February 2019) "Pentagon Studies Post-INF Weapons, Shooting Down Hypersonics", Breaking Defense
  127. Kelley M. Sayler (11 July 2019), "Hypersonic Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress", Congressional Research Service
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  135. https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/41164/missile-defense-agency-lays-out-how-it-plans-to-defend-against-hypersonic-threats BRETT TINGLEY AND JOSEPH TREVITHICK (19 JUNE 2021) Missile Defense Agency Lays Out How It Plans To Defend Against Hypersonic Threats
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  137. Theresa Hitchens (21 Oct 2021) Hypersonic Space Test Fuels Sino-American Arms Race
  138. Center for Strategic & International Studies (7 Feb 2022) Complex Air Defense: Countering the Hypersonic Missile Threat Dr. Tom Karako, Director of the CSIS Missile Defense Project; Ms. Kelley Sayler, CRS; Dr. Gillian Bussey, Director of the Joint Hypersonics Transition Office; Dr. Mark Lewis, Executive Director of NDIA's Emerging Technologies Institute; Mr. Stan Stafira, Chief Architect at the Missile Defense Agency (MDA)
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  142. Courtney Albon (14 Feb 2024) Pentagon launches six satellites to boost missile tracking capability
  143. Masao Dahlgren (13 Feb 2024) The Pentagon's next satellite launch is a test for missile defense's future
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  179. Joseph Trevithick (16 Dec 2022) Mayhem Hypersonic Strike-Recon Jet Contract Awarded To Leidos "Mayhem air vehicle to demonstrate strike and intelligence-gathering capabilities"
  180. Kris Osborn (10 Jan 2023) Air Force Research Lab Advances "First-of-its-Kind" Armed Hypersonic Attack Drone "The new hypersonic vehicle, called Mayhem, will perform surveillance and 'strike' missions"
  181. CHRISTOPHER PLAIN (21 Dec 2022) THE U.S. AIR FORCE IS PREPARING TO UNLEASH HYPERSONIC MAYHEM AFRL project; design package to be ready by 2027
  182. Darren Orf (20 Jan 2023) Project Mayhem, the Air Force's Secret Hypersonic Bomber, Has Begun Cooking
  183. Christopher McFadden (20 Jan 2023) US' hypersonic missile 'Mayhem' gets a boost from Kratos
  184. Theresa Hitchens (24 Jan 2023) DIU asks industry for help getting hypersonic test jet closer to lift off
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  194. Oren Liebermann (14 March 2022) US tested hypersonic missile in mid-March but kept it quiet to avoid escalating tensions with Russia Both the Raytheon and the Lockheed teams have now successfully tested their scramjets
  195. Alex Hollings (5 Apr 2022) US SUCCESSFULLY TESTS SCRAMJET-POWERED HYPERSONIC MISSILE IN SECRET "speeds just above Mach 5 at an altitude higher than 65,000 feet for more than 300 miles"
  196. Mike Stone (18 Jul 2022) U.S. successfully flight-tests Raytheon hypersonic weapon -Pentagon
  197. Audrey Decker (14 Mar 2024) Air Force Won’t Buy Hypersonic Missiles in 2024, Official Says
  198. Courtney Albon (9 May 2022) DARPA seeks funding for next phase of hypersonic weapon
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  200. John A. Tirpak (2 Mar 2020) Roper: The ARRW Hypersonic Missile Better Option for USAF
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  204. https://breakingdefense.com/2020/02/lockheed-martin-air-force-press-ahead-on-air-launched-hypersonic-missile/ Theresa Hitchens (27 February 2020) Lockheed Martin, Air Force Press Ahead On Air-Launched Hypersonic Missile
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  207. Miltech insights (18 Dec 2021) Third Test of US Hypersonic Missile AGM-183A Arrow Fails
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  210. Valerie Insinna (9 Mar 2022) Air Force can’t buy its first hypersonic ARRW as planned, following budget cut
  211. Stephen Losey (17 Jul 2022) US Air Force weighing future of key hypersonic program after two successful tests
  212. Oren Liebermann (Air Force delays hypersonic missile program after flight test 'anomalies' AGM-183A ARRW
  213. Oren Liebermann (16 May 2022) US Air Force tests troubled hypersonic missile
  214. Valerie Insinna (9 Dec 2022) Air Force successfully tests first fully-operational air-launched hypersonic missile AGM-183A ARRW's 1st all-up round was successfully tested, completing its flight path and successfully detonating, after 3 consecutive test failures (Apr, Jul, and Dec 2021), and 2 successful tests of the booster in May and July 2022
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  216. Bloomberg (29 Mar 2023) US Air Force Plans to End Lockheed Hypersonic Weapon Program
  217. Michael Marrow (24 Mar 2023) Air Force mum on whether latest ARRW hypersonic test was successful
  218. Michael Marrow (22 Aug 2023) Air Force won't say whether newest ARRW test succeeded, echoing past failure An end-to-end test of a Middle Tier Acquisition (MTA) from Lockheed
  219. Stephen Losey (21 Aug 2023) US Air Force fires hypersonic ARRW in first test since March failure End-to-end test
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