Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas explained

This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

North America

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total).^[1] The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total).

North American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1

Families (42)

1. Otomanguean (180)
2. Arawakan (78)
3. Uto-Aztecan (69)
4. Algic (46)
5. Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45)
6. Mayan (33)
7. Chibchan (27)
8. Salishan (25)
9. Mixe-Zoque (19)
10. Siouan (18)
11. Eskimo–Aleut (12)
12. Totonacan (12)
13. Cochimi-Yuman (11)
14. Iroquoian (11)
15. Miwok-Costanoan (11)
16. Kiowa-Tanoan (8)
17. Muskogean (7)
18. Pomoan (7)
19. Chumashan (6)
20. Wakashan (6)
21. Caddoan (5)
22. Misumalpan (5)
23. Sahaptian (5)
24. Xincan (5)
25. Chinookan (4)
26. Huavean (4)
27. Maiduan (4)
28. Yokutsan (4)
29. Kalapuyan (3)
30. Shastan (3)
31. Tequistlatecan (3)
32. Tsimshian (3)
33. Chimakuan (2)
34. Coosan (2)
35. Haida (2)
36. Jicaquean (2)
37. Keresan (2)
38. Lencan (2)
39. Palaihnihan (2)
40. Tarascan (2)
41. Wintuan (2)
42. Yuki-Wappo (2)

Isolates (31)

1. Adai
2. Alsea-Yaquina
3. Atakapa
4. Beothuk
5. Cayuse
6. Chimariko
7. Chitimacha
8. Coahuilteco
9. Comecrudan
10. Cotoname
11. Cuitlatec
12. Esselen
13. Guaicurian
14. Karankawa
15. Karok
16. Klamath-Modoc
17. Kutenai
18. Maratino
19. Molale
20. Natchez
21. Salinan
22. Seri
23. Siuslaw
24. Takelma
25. Timucua
26. Tonkawa
27. Tunica
28. Washo
29. Yana
30. Yuchi
31. Zuni

Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)

(Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)

Families

1. Algonkin-Lenape  (=Algonquian)
2. Athapascas  (=Athabaskan)
3. Catawban  (=Catawba + Woccons)
4. Eskimaux  (=Eskimoan)
5. Iroquois  (=Northern Iroquoian)
6. Cherokees  (=Southern Iroquoian)
7. Muskogee  (=Eastern Muskogean)
8. Chahtas  (=Western Muskogean)
9. Sioux  (=Siouan)

Languages

Adaize  (=Adai) Attacapas  (=Atakapa) Salmon River  (=Bella Coola) Black Feet  (=Blackfoot) Pawnees  (=Pawnee) Caddoes  (=Caddo) Chinooks  (=Chinookan) Chetimachas  (=Chitimacha) Fall Indians  (=Gros Ventre) Queen Charlotte's Island  (=Haida)

11. Straits of Fuca  (=Makah) 12. Natches  (=Natchez) 13. Wakash  (=Nootka) 14. Salish  (=Salishan) 15. Shoshonees  (=Shoshone) 16. Atnahs  (=Shuswap) 17. Kinai  (=Tanaina) 18. Koulischen  (=Tlingit) 19. Utchees  (=Yuchi)

Gallatin (1848)

Families

1. Algonquian languages
2. Athabaskan languages
3. Catawban languages
4. Eskimoan languages
5. Iroquoian languages (Northern)
6. Iroquoian languages (Southern)
7. Muskogean languages
8. Siouan languages

Languages

 1. Adai   2. Alsean   3. Apache   4. Arapaho   5. Atakapa   6. Caddoan, Northern   7. Caddoan, Southern   8. Cayuse-Molala   9. Chinookan 10. Chitimacha 11. Comanche 12. Haida 13. Kalapuyan 14. Kiowa 15. Klamath 16. Koasati-Alabama 17. Kootenai

18. Kutchin 19. Maricopa (Yuman) 20. Natchez 21. Palaihnihan 22. Plains Apache 23. Sahaptian 24. Salishan 25. Shasta 26. Shoshone 27. Tanaina 28. Tlingit 29. Tsimshian 30. Ute 31. Wakashan, Southern 32. Wichita 33. Yuchi

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.

John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.

(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)

 1. Adaizan   2. Algonquian   3. Athapascan   4. Attacapan  (=Atakapa)   5. Beothukan  (=Beothuk)   6. Caddoan   7. Chimakuan   8. Chimarikan  (=Chimariko)   9. Chimmesyan  (=Tsimshian) 10. Chinookan 11. Chitimachan  (=Chitimacha) 12. Chumashan 13. Coahuiltecan 14. Copehan  (=Wintuan) 15. Costanoan 16. Eskimauan  (=Eskimoan) 17. Esselenian  (=Esselen) 18. Iroquoian 19. Kalapooian  (=Kalapuyan) 20. Karankawan  (=Karankawa)

21. Keresan 22. Kiowan  (=Kiowa) 23. Kitunahan  (=Kutenai) 24. Koluschan  (=Tlingit) 25. Kulanapan  (=Pomoan) 26. Kusan  (=Coosan) 27. Lutuamian  (=Klamath-Modoc) 28. Mariposan  (=Yokutsan) 29. Moquelumnan  (=Miwokan) 30. Muskhogean  (=Muskogean) 31. Natchesan  (=Natchez) 32. Palaihnihan 33. Piman  (=Uto-Aztecan) 34. Pujunan  (=Maiduan) 35. Quoratean  (=Karok) 36. Salinan 37. Salishan 38. Sastean  (=Shastan) 39. Shahaptian  (=Sahaptian)

40. Shoshonean  (=Uto-Aztecan) 41. Siouan  (=Siouan–Catawba) 42. Skittagetan  (=Haida) 43. Takilman  (=Takelma) 44. Tañoan  (=Tanoan) 45. Timuquanan  (=Timucua) 46. Tonikan  (=Tunica) 47. Tonkawan  (=Tonkawa) 48. Uchean  (=Yuchi) 49. Waiilatpuan  (=Cayuse & Molala) 50. Wakashan 51. Washoan  (=Washo) 52. Weitspekan  (=Yurok) 53. Wishoskan  (=Wiyot) 54. Yakonan  (=Siuslaw & Alsean) 55. Yanan 56. Yukian 57. Yuman 58. Zuñian  (=Zuni)

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas, Mexico.

North American families

1. Algonkin
2. Beothuk
3. Eskimo
4. Hoka
5. Iroquois (Irokwa)
6. Kaddo
7. Keres
8. Kiowa
9. Klamath
10. Kutenai
11. Muskhogi
12. Na-Dene
13. Penutia
14. Sahaptin
15. Salish
16. Siou (Syu)
17. Tano
18. Timukua
19. Chimakum
20. Tunika
21. Uto-Azten
22. Waiilatpu
23. Wakash
24. Yuki
25. Yuchi
26. Zuñi

Central American families

1. Amusgo
2. Kuikatec
3. Kuitlatek
4. Lenka
5. Maya
6. Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa
7. Mixe-Zoke
8. Mixtek
9. Olive
10. Otomi
11. Paya
12. Subtiaba
13. Tarask (Michoacano)
14. Totonak
15. Chinantek
16. Waїkuri
17. Xanambre (Janambre)
18. Xikake (Jicaque)
19. Xinka (Jinca, Sinca)
20. Zapotek

Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica

Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut, Algonkin–Wakashan, Na-Dene, Penutian, Hokan–Siouan, and Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)

"Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

I. Eskimo–Aleut II. Algonkin–Wakashan 1. Algonkin–Ritwan (1) Algonkin (2) Beothuk (?) (3) Ritwan (a) Wiyot (b) Yurok 2. Kootenay 3. Mosan (Wakashan–Salish) (1) Wakashan (Kwakiutl–Nootka) (2) Chimakuan (3) Salish III. Nadene 1. Haida 2. Continental Nadene (1) Tlingit (2) Athabaskan IV. Penutian 1. Californian Penutian (1) Miwok-Costanoan (2) Yokuts (3) Maidu (4) Wintun 2. Oregon Penutian (1) Takelma (2) Coast Oregon Penutian (a) Coos (b) Siuslaw (c) Yakonan (3) Kalapuya 3. Chinook 4. Tsimshian 5. Plateau Penutian (1) Sahaptin (2) Waiilatpuan (Molala–Cayuse) (3) Lutuami (Klamath-Modoc) 6. Mexican Penutian (1) Mixe–Zoque (2) Huave

V. Hokan–Siouan 1. Hokan–Coahuiltecan A. Hokan (1) Northern Hokan (a) Karok, Chimariko, Shasta–Achomawi (b) Yana (c) Pomo (2) Washo (3) Esselen–Yuman (a) Esselen (b) Yuman (4) Salinan–Seri (a) Salinan (b) Chumash (c) Seri (5) Tequistlatecan (Chontal) B. Subtiaba–Tlappanec C. Coahuiltecan (1) Tonkawa (2) Coahuilteco (a) Coahuilteco proper (b) Cotoname (c) Comecrudo (3) Karankawa 2. Yuki 3. Keres 4. Tunican (1) Tunica–Atakapa (2) Chitimacha 5. Iroquois (1) Iroquoian (2) Caddoan 6. Eastern group (1) Siouan–Yuchi (a) Siouan (b) Yuchi (2) Natchez–Muskogian (a) Natchez (b) Muskogian (c) Timucua (?)

VI. Aztec–Tanoan 1. Uto-Aztekan (1) Nahuatl (2) Piman (3) Shoshonean 2. Tanoan–Kiowa (1) Tanoan (2) Kiowa 3. Zuñi (?)

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965)^[2] classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.

American Arctic-Paleosiberian phylum Eskimo–Aleut Chukchi–Kamchatkan Na-Dene phylum Athapascan Tlingit Haida Macro-Algonquian phylum Algonquian Yurok Wiyot Muskogean Natchez Atakapa Chitimacha Tunica Tonkawa Macro-Siouan phylum Siouan Catawba Iroquoian Caddoan Yuchi Hokan phylum Yuman Seri Pomoan Palaihnihan Shastan Yanan Chimariko Washo Salinan Karok Chumashan Comecrudan Coahuiltecan Esselen Jicaque Tlapanecan Tequistlatecan

6. Penutian phylum Yokuts Maidu Wintun Miwok–Costanoan Klamath–Modoc Sahaptin–Nez Perce Cayuse Molale Coos Yakonan Takelma Kalapuya Chinookan Tsimshian Zuni Mixe–Zoque Mayan Chipaya–Uru Totonacan Huave  7. Aztec–Tanoan phylum Kiowa–Tanoan Uto-Aztecan  8. Keres  9. Yuki 10. Beothuk 11. Kutenai 12. Karankawa 13. Chimakuan 14. Salish 15. Wakashan 16. Timucua

Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary)

Families

1. Algic
   1. Algonquian
   2. Wiyot (> Ritwan?)
   3. Yurok (> Ritwan?)
2. Na-Dene
   1. Eyak-Athabaskan
      1. Eyak
      2. Athabaskan
   2. Tlingit
3. Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?)
4. Chimakuan
5. Chinookan (> Penutian?)
6. Chumashan [chúmash]
7. Comecrudan
8. Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
9. Eskimo–Aleut
   1. Eskimoan
   2. Aleut = Unangan
10. Iroquoian
11. Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
12. Kiowa–Tanoan
13. Maiduan
14. Muskogean
15. Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi)
16. Pomoan
17. Sahaptian
18. Salishan
19. Shastan
20. Siouan–Catawban
    1. Siouan
    2. Catawban
21. Tsimshianic
22. Utian
    1. Miwok
    2. Costanoan
23. Utaztecan
    1. Numic = Plateau
    2. Tübatulabal = Kern
    3. Takic = Southern California
    4. Hopi = Pueblo
    5. Tepiman = Pimic
    6. Taracahitic
    7. Tubar
    8. Corachol
    9. Aztecan
24. Wakashan
    1. Kwakiutlan
    2. Nootkan
25. Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?)
26. Yokutsan
27. Yuman–Cochimi
    1. Yuman
    2. Cochimi

Isolates

1. Adai
2. Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
3. Atakapa (> Tunican?)
4. Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
5. Cayuse
6. Chimariko
7. Chitimacha (> Tunican?)
8. Coahuilteco
9. Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
10. Esselen
11. Haida
12. Karankawa
13. Karuk
14. Keres
15. Klamath-Modoc
16. Kootenai
17. Molala
18. Natchez
19. Salinan
20. Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?)
21. Takelma
22. Timucua
23. Tonkawa
24. Tunica (> Tunican?)
25. Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo)
26. Washo
27. Yana
28. Yuchi (> Siouan)
29. Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo)
30. Zuni

Stocks

• Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)

The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probably by many linguists:

• Penutian

1. Tsimshianic
2. Chinookan
3. Takelma
4. Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
5. Maidun
6. Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
   1. Alsea
   2. Coosan
   3. Siuslaw
   4. Wintuan
7. Plateau
   1. Sahaptian
   2. Klamath
   3. Molala
   4. Cayuse ? (poor data)
8. Yok-Utian ?
   1. Yana
   2. Yana

Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely:

• Macro-Siouan

1. Iroquoian–Caddoan
   1. Iroquoian
   2. Caddoan
2. Siouan–Yuchi
   1. Siouan–Catawban
   2. Yuchi

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis

• Natchez–Muskogean

1. Natchez
2. Muskogean

Hokan: most promising proposals

• Hokan

1. Karok
2. Chimariko
3. Shastan
4. Palaihnihan
5. Yana
6. Washo
7. Pomoan
8. Esselen
9. Salinan
10. Yuman–Cochimi
11. Seri

"Unlikely" to be Hokan:

Chumashan

Tonkawa

Karankawa

Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).

Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.

Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification)

Families

• Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages

1. Corachol (Cora–Huichol)

1. Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec)

• Totonac–Tepehua
• Otomanguean

1. Otopamean

1. Popolocan–Mazatecan

1. Subtiaba–Tlapanec

1. Amuzgo

1. Mixtecan

1. Chatino–Zapotec

1. Chinantec

1. Chiapanec–Mangue (extinct)

• Tequistlatec-Jicaque
• Mixe–Zoque
• Mayan
• Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)
• Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America)

1. Paya

Isolates

• Purépecha
• Cuitlatec (extinct)
• Huave
• Xinca (extinct?)
• Lenca (extinct)

Proposed stocks

• Hokan (see North America)

1. Tequistlatec-Jicaque

• Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.)

1. Totonac–Tepehua

1. Huave

1. Mixe–Zoque

1. Mayan

• Macro-Chibchan

1. Chibchan

1. Misumalpan

1. Paya (sometimes placed in Chibchan proper)

1. Xinca

1. Lenca

South America

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84),^[3] Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87),^{[4] [5]} Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891),^[6] Paul Rivet (1924),^[7] John Alden Mason (1950),^[8] and Čestmír Loukotka (1968). Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45),^[9] Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984),^{[10] [11]} and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).^[12]

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America.

South American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1

Families (44)

1. Arawakan (78)
2. Tupian (71)
3. Pano-Tacanan (45)
4. Quechuan (45)
5. Cariban (42)
6. Mayan (33)
7. Nuclear-Macro-Je (30)
8. Chibchan (27)
9. Tucanoan (26)
10. Chapacuran (12)
11. Chocoan (9)
12. Huitotoan (7)
13. Matacoan (7)
14. Arawan (6)
15. Barbacoan (6)
16. Nambiquaran (6)
17. Zaparoan (6)
18. Guahiboan (5)
19. Guaicuruan (5)
20. Lengua-Mascoy (5)
21. Yanomamic (5)
22. Aymaran (4)
23. Chicham (4)
24. Chonan (4)
25. Jodi-Saliban (4)
26. Kamakanan (4)
27. Naduhup (4)
28. Bororoan (3)
29. Cahuapanan (3)
30. Charruan (3)
31. Kawesqar (3)
32. Peba-Yagua (3)
33. Zamucoan (3)
34. Araucanian (2)
35. Boran (2)
36. Harakmbut (2)
37. Hibito-Cholon (2)
38. Huarpean (2)
39. Kakua-Nukak (2)
40. Katukinan (2)
41. Otomaco-Taparita (2)
42. Puri-Coroado (2)
43. Ticuna-Yuri (2)
44. Uru-Chipaya (2)

Isolates (64)

1. Aewa
2. Aikanã
3. Andaqui
4. Andoque
5. Arutani
6. Atacame
7. Betoi-Jirara
8. Camsá
9. Candoshi-Shapra
10. Canichana
11. Cayubaba
12. Chiquitano
13. Chono
14. Cofán
15. Culli
16. Fulniô
17. Guachi
18. Guamo
19. Guató
20. Irántxe-Münkü
21. Itonama
22. Jirajaran
23. Kanoê
24. Kariri
25. Kunza
26. Kwaza
27. Leco
28. Lule
29. Máku
30. Matanawí
31. Mato Grosso Arára
32. Mochica
33. Mosetén-Chimané
34. Movima
35. Muniche
36. Mure
37. Omurano
38. Oti
39. Páez
40. Pankararú
41. Payagua
42. Pirahã
43. Puelche
44. Puinave
45. Pumé
46. Puquina
47. Ramanos
48. Sapé
49. Sechuran
50. Tallán
51. Taruma
52. Taushiro
53. Timote-Cuica
54. Tinigua
55. Trumai
56. Tuxá
57. Urarina
58. Vilela
59. Waorani
60. Warao
61. Xukurú
62. Yámana
63. Yuracaré
64. Yurumanguí

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists 77 independent language families of South America.^[7]

Mason (1950)

Classification of South American languages by J. Alden Mason (1950):^[8]

Chibchan

• Western
  • Talamanca
  • Barbacoa
    • Pasto
    • Cayapa-Colorado
  • Guatuso
  • Cuna
• Pacific
  • Isthmian (Guaymí)
  • Colombian
• Inter-Andine
  • Páez
  • Coconuco
  • Popayanense
• Eastern
  • Cundinamarca
  • Arhuaco
  • Central America
  • ? Andakí (Andaquí)
  • ? Betoi group

Languages probably of Chibchan affinities

• Panzaleo
• Cara, Caranki
• Kijo (Quijo)
• Misumalpan
• Cofán (Kofane)

Languages of doubtful Chibchan relationships

• Coche (Mocoa)
• Esmeralda
• Tairona, Chimila
• Yurumanguí
• Timote
• Candoshi, Chirino, Murato
• Cholón
• Híbito
• Copallén
• Aconipa (Akonipa)

Language families of central South America

• Yunca-Puruhán
  • Yunca
  • Puruhá
  • Cañari (Canyari)
  • Atalán
  • Sec (Sechura, Tallán)
• Kechumaran
  • Quechua
  • Aymara
• Chiquitoan
• Macro-Guaicuruan
  • Mataco-Macá
    • Mataco
    • Macá (Enimagá, Cochaboth)
  • Guaicurú (Waicurú)
• Lule-Vilelan
  • Tonocoté, Matará, Guacará

Arawakan

• Chané, Chaná

Languages of probable Arawakan affinities

• Arauá group
• Apolista (Lapachu)
• Amuesha
• Tucuna (Tikuna)
• Tarumá
• Tacana

Languages of possible Arawakan relationships

• Tuyuneri
• Jirajara
• Jívaro
• Uru-Chipaya-Pukina
  • Ochosuma
  • Chango, Coast Uru

Cariban

Languages of probable Cariban affiliations

• Chocó, Cariban of Colombia
• Peba-Yagua
  • Arda
• Yuma
• Palmella
• Yuri (Juri)
• Pimenteira

Macro-Tupí-Guaranian

• Tupí-Guaranian
  • Yurimagua (Zurimagua)
• Arikem
• Miranyan (Boran)
• Witotoan
  • Nonuya
  • Muenane
  • Fitita
  • Orejón
  • Coeruna
  • Andoke
  • Resigero
• Záparoan
  • Omurano (Roamaina?)
  • Sabela
  • Canelo
  • Awishira

Northern tropical lowland independent families

• Warrauan
• Auakéan
• Calianan
• Macuan
• Shirianán
• Sálivan, Macu, Piaróa
• Pamigua, Tinigua
• Otomacan, Guamo (Guama), Yaruran
• Guahiban
• Puinavean (Macú)
• Tucanoan (Betoyan)
  • Coto
• Cahuapanan
  • Muniche
• Panoan
  • Chama languages
  • Cashibo
  • Mayoruna
  • Itucale, Simacu, Urarina
  • Aguano
  • Chamicuro

Southern tropical lowland independent families

• Unclassified languages of Eastern Perú: Alon, Amasifuin, Carapacho, Cascoasoa, Chedua, Cholto, Chunanawa, Chusco, Cognomona, Chupacho, Huayana, Kikidcana (Quiquidcana), Moyo-pampa, Nindaso, Nomona, Pantahua, Payanso, Tepqui, Tingan, Tulumayo, Zapazo
• Small "families" of Bolivia: Itonama, Canichana, Cayuvava, Movima, Moseten, Leco, Yuracare
• Small languages of the Brazil-Bolivia border: Huari, Masáca, Capishaná, Puruborá, Mashubi, Kepikiriwat, Sanamaicá, Tuparí, Guaycarú, Aricapu, Yaputi, Aruashí, Canoa
• Catukinan
• Chapacuran: Wanyam (Huañam), Cabishí (Kabichi)
• Mascoian
• Zamucoan
• Guatoan
• Bororoan, Otuke
  • Coraveca, Covareca
  • Curucaneca, Curuminaca
• Nambicuaran
  • Cabishí
• Muran
  • Matanawí
• Trumaian
• Caraján
• Caririan

Macro-Ge

• Ge
• Caingang
• Camacán, Mashacalí, Purí (Coroado)
  • Camacán
  • Mashacalí
  • Purí (Coroado)
• Patashó
• Malalí
• Coropó
• Botocudo

Other language families of eastern Brazil

• Shavanté (Chavanté, Šavante)
  • Otí
  • Opayé
  • Cucurá
• Guaitacán
• Small languages of the Pernambuco region: Fulnió, Natú, Pancãrurú, Shocó, Shucurú, Tushá, Carapató, Payacú, Teremembé, Tarairiu (Ochucayana)

Southernmost languages

• Ataguitan
  • Atacama
  • Omawaca (Omahuaca)
  • Diaguita (Calchaquí)
• Charrua, Kerandí, Chaná, etc.
• Allentiac (Huarpean)
• Sanavirón, Comechingónan
  • Sanavirón
  • Comechingón
• Araucanian
  • Chono
• Puelchean
  • Het (Chechehet)
• Chonan (Tewelche, Tehuelche), Ona
• Yahganan
• Alacalufan

Loukotka (1968)

Čestmír Loukotka (1968) proposed a total of 117 indigenous language families (called stocks by Loukotka) and isolates of South America.^[13]

Languages of Paleo-American tribes

• A. Southern Division
  • 1. Yámana
  • 2. Alacaluf
  • 3. Aksanás
  • 4. Patagon
  • 5. Gennaken
  • 6. Chechehet
  • 7. Sanaviron
• B. Chaco Division
  • 8. Guaicuru
  • 9. Vilela
  • 10. Mataco
  • 11. Lengua
  • 12. Zamuco
  • 13. Chiquito
  • 14. Gorgotoqui
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the areas of Divisions A and B.
• C. Division of Central Brazil
  • 15. Charrua
  • 16. Kaingán
  • 17. Opaie
  • 18. Puri
  • 19. Mashakali
  • 20. Botocudo
  • 21. Baenan
  • 22. Kamakan
  • 23. Fulnio
  • 24. Ge
  • 25. Kukura (spurious)
  • 26. Otí
  • 27. Boróro
  • 28. Karajá
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division C.
• D. Northeastern Division
  • 29. Katembri
  • 30. Tushá
  • 31. Pankarurú
  • 32. Chocó
  • 33. Umán
  • 34. Natú
  • 35. Shukurú
  • 36. Kiriri
  • 37. Tarairiú
  • 38. Gamela
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division D.
• E. Northwestern Division
  • 39. Múra
  • 40. Matanawí
  • 41. Erikbaktsa
  • 42. Nambikwára
  • 43. Iranshe
  • 44. Yabutí

Languages of tropical forest tribes

• A. North Central Division
  • 45. Tupi
  • 46. Arawak
  • 47. Otomac
  • 48. Guamo
  • 49. Taruma
  • 50. Piaroa
  • 51. Tinigua
  • 52. Máku
  • 53. Tucuna
  • 54. Yagua
  • 55. Kahuapana
  • 56. Munichi
  • 57. Cholona
  • 58. Mayna
  • 59. Murato
  • 60. Auishiri
  • 61. Itucale
  • 62. Jíbaro
  • 63. Sabela
  • 64. Záparo
  • 65. Chapacura
  • 66. Huari
  • 67. Capixana
  • 68. Koaiá
  • 69. Purubora
  • 70. Trumai
  • 71. Cayuvava
  • 72. Mobima
  • 73. Itonama
  • 74. Canichana
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Central Division.
• B. South Central Division
  • 75. Pano
  • 76. Tacana
  • 77. Toyeri
  • 78. Yuracare
  • 79. Mosetene
  • 80. Guató
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the South Central Division.
• C. Languages of the Central Division
  • 81. Tucano
  • 82. Andoque
  • 83. Uitoto
  • 84. Bora
  • 85. Yuri
  • 86. Makú
  • 87. Catuquina
  • 88. Arawa
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Central Division.
• D. Northeastern Division
  • 89. Karaib
  • 90. Yanoama
  • 91. Uarao
  • 92. Auaké
  • 93. Kaliána
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Eastern Division.

Languages of Andean tribes

• A. Northern Division
  • 94. Chibcha
  • 95. Timote
  • 96. Jirajara
  • 97. Chocó
  • 98. Idabaez
  • Unclassified or unknown division.
• B. North Central Division
  • 99. Yurimangui
  • 100. Cofán
  • 101. Sechura
  • 102. Catacao
  • 103. Culli
  • 104. Tabancale
  • 105. Copallén
  • 106. Chimú
• C. South Central Division
  • 107. Quechua
  • 108. Aymara
  • 109. Puquina
  • 110. Uro
  • 111. Atacama
  • 112. Leco
  • Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Ancient Inca Empire.
• D. Southern Division
  • 113. Mapuche
  • 114. Diaguit
  • 115. Humahuaca
  • 116. Lule
  • 117. Huarpe

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 genetic units. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only language family, such as language area, emergent area, and language complex, where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply families. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.^[14]

Families: Aimoré Arawán Barbakóan Bóran Boróroan Chapakúran Charrúan Chíbchan Chimúan Chipaya Chokó Cholónan Chon Haki Harákmbut Hiraháran Hívaro Jabutían Je Kamakánan Karajá Káriban Katakáoan Katukínan Kawapánan Kawéskar Kechua Maipúrean Mashakalían Maskóian Matákoan Misumalpa Mosetén Múran Nambikuara Otomákoan Páesan Pánoan Puinávean Purían Sálivan Samúkoan Sáparoan Takánan Timótean Tiníwan Tukánoan Tupían Wahívoan Waikurúan Warpe Witótoan Yanomáman Yáwan

Isolates or unclassified: Aikaná Andoke Awaké Baenã Betoi Chikitano Ezmeralda Fulnió Gamela Gorgotoki Guató Hotí Iranshe Itonama Jaruro Jeikó Jurí Kaliana Kamsá Kanichana Kapishaná Karirí Katembrí Kayuvava Koayá Kofán Kandoshi Kolyawaya jargon Kukurá Kulyi Kunsa Leko Lule Maku Mapudungu Matanawí Movima Munichi Natú Ofayé Omurano Otí Pankararú Puelche Pukina Rikbaktsá Sabela Sechura Shokó Shukurú Tarairiú Taruma Tekiraka Tikuna Trumai Tushá Urarina Vilela Wamo Wamoé Warao Yámana Yurakare Yurimangi

Stocks

In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.

"Good" stocks:

• Awaké–Kaliana (Arutani–Sape)
• Chibcha–Misumalpa
• Ezmeralda–Jaruro
• Jurí–Tikuna
• Kechumara (=Kechua + Haki) (good?)
• Lule–Vilela
• Mosetén–Chon (good?)
• Páes–Barbakóa
• Pano–Takana
• Sechura–Katakao
• Wamo–Chapakúra

"Probable" stocks:

• Macro-Je (=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)
• Mura–Matanawí

"Promising" stocks:

• Kaliánan (=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku)

"Maybe" stocks:

• Bora–Witoto
• Hívaro–Kawapana
• Kunsa–Kapishaná (now abandoned)
• Pukina–Kolyawaya
• Sáparo–Yawa

Clusters and networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms clusters and networks. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

Campbell (2012)

Lyle Campbell (2012) proposed the following list of 53 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 55 isolates of South America – a total of 108 independent families and isolates.^[15] Language families with 9 or more languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

Families

1. Arawakan (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65) – widespread
2. Cariban (~40) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc.
3. Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (9) – Brazil, Bolivia
4. Chibchan (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica
5. Jêan (12) – Brazil
6. Pano–Takanan (~30) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
7. Makúan (Makú–Puinavean, Puinavean, Guaviaré–Japurá) (8) – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela
8. Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
9. Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~20) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil
10. Tupían (~55) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc.
11. Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6) – Brazil, Peru
12. Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru
13. Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador
14. Bororoan (3) – Brazil
15. Cahuapanan (2) – Peru
16. Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador
17. Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina
18. Chipaya–Uru (3) – Bolivia
19. Chocoan (2–6) – Colombia, Panama
20. Cholonan (2) – Peru
21. Chonan (Chon) (3) – Argentina
22. Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil
23. Guajiboan (4) – Colombia
24. Harákmbut–Katukinan (3; uncertain) – Peru, Brazil
25. Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina
26. Jabutían (2) – Brazil
27. Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela
28. Jivaroan (4 ?) – Peru, Ecuador
29. Kamakanan (5 ?) – Brazil
30. Karajá (2 ?) – Brazil
31. Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil
32. Krenákan (Botocudoan, Aimoré) (3) – Brazil
33. Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina
34. Mascoyan (4) – Paraguay
35. Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia
36. Maxakalían (3) – Brazil
37. Mosetenan (2) – Bolivia
38. Muran (4, only 1 living) – Brazil
39. Nambikwaran (5 ?) – Brazil
40. Qawasqaran (Kaweskaran, Alacalufan) (2–3) – Chile
41. Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela
42. Paezan (1–3; isolate ?) – Colombia
43. Purían (2) – Brazil
44. Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia
45. Sechura–Catacaoan (3) – Peru
46. Timotean (2) – Venezuela
47. Tikuna–Yuri – Peru, Colombia, Brazil
48. Tiniguan (2) – Colombia
49. Yaguan (3) – Peru
50. Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru
51. Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil
52. Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia
53. Zaparoan (3) – Peru, Ecuador

Isolates

1. Aikaná – Brazil
2. Andaquí – Colombia
3. Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru
4. Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
5. Awaké (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil
6. Baenan – Brazil
7. Betoi – Colombia (small family ?)
8. Camsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia
9. Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru
10. Canichana – Bolivia
11. Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia
12. Chiquitano – Bolivia
13. Chono – Chile
14. Cofán (A’ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador
15. Culle – Peru
16. Gamela – Brazil
17. Guachí – Brazil
18. Guató – Brazil
19. Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil
20. Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil
21. Jeikó (Jeicó, Jaiko) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
22. Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela
23. Kaliana (Sapé, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela
24. Kapixaná (Kanoé) – Brazil
25. Koayá (Kwaza, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil
26. Máku (Mako) – Brazil
27. Mapudungu (Mapudungun, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) – Chile, Argentina
28. Matanauí – Brazil
29. Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru
30. Movima – Bolivia
31. Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru
32. Natú (Peagaxinan) – Brazil
33. Ofayé (Opayé, Ofayé–Xavante) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
34. Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru
35. Otí – Brazil
36. Pankararú (Pancararu, Pancarurú, Brancararu) – Brazil
37. Payaguá – Paraguay
38. Puquina – Bolivia
39. Rikbaktsá (Aripaktsá, Eribatsa, Eripatsa, Canoeiro) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
40. Sabela (Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador
41. Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana
42. Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru
43. Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru
44. Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil
45. Tuxá – Brazil
46. Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru
47. Wamoé (Huamoé, Huamoi, Uamé, Umã; Araticum, Atikum) – Brazil
48. Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela
49. Xokó – Brazil
50. Xukurú – Brazil
51. Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile
52. Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela
53. Yaté (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Iatê) – Brazil
54. Yuracaré – Bolivia
55. Yurumangui – Colombia

Campbell (2012) leaves out the classifications of these languages as uncertain.

• Boran – Brazil, Colombia
• Esmeralda – Ecuador
• Guamo – Venezuela
• Leko – Bolivia
• Mure – Bolivia
• Puinave – Colombia, Venezuela

Jolkesky (2016)

Jolkesky (2016) lists 43 language families and 66 language isolates (and/or unclassified languages) in South America – a total of 109 independent families and isolates.^[16]

• † = extinct

Families

1. Andoke-Urekena
2. Arawa
3. Barbakoa
4. Bora-Muinane
5. Chacha-Cholon-Hibito
6. Chapakura-Wañam
7. Charrua
8. Chibcha
9. Choko
10. Chon
11. Duho
12. Guahibo
13. Harakmbet-Katukina
14. Jaqi
15. Jirajara †
16. Jivaro
17. Karib
18. Kawapana
19. Kechua
20. Lengua-Maskoy
21. Macro-Arawak
22. Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru
23. Macro-Jê
24. Mapudungun
25. Moseten-Tsimane
26. Mura-Matanawi
27. Nambikwara
28. Otomako-Taparita †
29. Pano-Takana
30. Peba-Yagua
31. Puinave-Nadahup
32. Puri †
33. Tallan †
34. Timote-Kuika
35. Tinigua-Pamigua
36. Tukano
37. Tupi
38. Uru-Chipaya
39. Warpe †
40. Witoto-Okaina
41. Yanomami
42. Zamuko
43. Zaparo

Isolates and unclassified languages

1. Aikanã
2. Andaki †
3. Arara do Rio Branco
4. Arutani
5. Atakame †
6. Atikum †
7. Aushiri †
8. Chono †
9. Guamo †
10. Guato
11. Gününa Këna
12. Iranche/Myky
13. Itonama
14. Kakan †
15. Kamsa
16. Kañari †
17. Kanichana
18. Kanoe
19. Kawesqar
20. Kayuvava
21. Kerandi †
22. Kimbaya †
23. Kingnam †
24. Kofan
25. Komechingon †
26. Koraveka †
27. Kueva †
28. Kulle †
29. Kunza †
30. Kuruminaka †
31. Kwaza
32. Leko
33. Lule †
34. Maku
35. Malibu †
36. Mochika †
37. Mokana †
38. Morike †
39. Movima
40. Muzo-Kolima †
41. Omurano
42. Oti †
43. Paez
44. Panche †
45. Pijao †
46. Puruha †
47. Sanaviron †
48. Sape
49. Sechura †
50. Tarairiu †
51. Taruma
52. Taushiro
53. Tekiraka
54. Trumai
55. Tuxa †
56. Umbra
57. Urarina
58. Vilela
59. Waorani
60. Warao
61. Xukuru †
62. Yagan
63. Yaruro
64. Yurakare
65. Yurumangui †
66. Zenu †

Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages

1. Kallawaya
2. Maskoy Pidgin
3. Media Lengua
4. Ndyuka-Tiriyo

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas.^[17]

1. Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia.
2. Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language.
3. Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages.
4. Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes.
5. Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Je languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages.
6. Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification^[18] in his 1987 book Language in the Americas is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence,^[19] although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification.

1. Northern Amerind
   1. Almosan–Keresiouan
      1. Almosan
         1. Algic
         2. Kutenai
         3. Mosan
            1. Wakashan
            2. Salish
            3. Chimakuan
      2. Caddoan
      3. Keres
      4. Siouan
      5. Iroquoian
   2. Penutian
      1. California Penutian
         1. Maidu
         2. Miwok–Costanoan
         3. Wintun
         4. Yokuts
      2. Chinook
      3. Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan)
         1. Huave
         2. Mayan
         3. Mixe–Zoque
         4. Totonac
      4. Oregon Penutian
      5. Plateau Penutian
      6. Tsimshian
      7. Yukian
      8. Gulf
         1. Atakapa
         2. Chitimacha
         3. Muskogean
         4. Natchez
         5. Tunica
      9. Zuni
   3. Hokan
      1. Nuclear Hokan
         1. Northern
            1. Karok–Shasta
            2. Yana
            3. Pomo
         2. Washo
         3. Esselen–Yuman
         4. Salinan–Seri
         5. Waicuri
         6. Maratino
         7. Quinigua
         8. Tequistlatec
      2. Coahuiltecan
         1. Tonkawa
         2. Nuclear Coahuiltecan
         3. Karankawa
      3. Subtiaba
      4. Jicaque
      5. Yurumangui
2. Central Amerind
   1. Kiowa–Tanoan
   2. Otomanguean
   3. Uto-Aztecan
3. Chibchan–Paezan
   1. Chibchan
      1. Nuclear Chibchan
         1. Antioquia
         2. Aruak
         3. Chibcha
         4. Cuna
         5. Guaymi
         6. Malibu
         7. Misumalpan
         8. Motilon
         9. Rama
         10. Talamanca
      2. Paya
      3. Purépecha
      4. Xinca
      5. Yanomam
      6. Yunca–Puruhan
   2. Paezan
      1. Allentiac
      2. Atacama
      3. Betoi
      4. Chimu
      5. Itonama
      6. Jirajara
      7. Mura
      8. Nuclear Paezan
         1. Andaqui
         2. Barbacoa
         3. Choco
         4. Paez
      9. Timucua
      10. Warrao
4. Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not)
   1. Aymara
   2. Itucale–Sabela
      1. Itucale
      2. Mayna
      3. Sabela
   3. Cahuapana–Zaparo
      1. Cahuapano
      2. Zaparo
   4. Northern
      1. Catacao
      2. Cholona
      3. Culli
      4. Leco
      5. Sechura
   5. Quechua
   6. Southern
      1. Qawesqar
      2. Mapundungu
      3. Gennaken
      4. Patagon
      5. Yamana
5. Equatorial–Tucanoan
   1. Equatorial
      1. Macro-Arawakan
         1. Arawakan
         2. Guahibo
         3. Katembri
         4. Otomaco
         5. Tinigua
      2. Cayuvava
      3. Coche
      4. Jivaro–Kandoshi
         1. Cofan
         2. Esmeralda
         3. Jivaro
         4. Kandoshi
         5. Yaruro
      5. Kariri–Tupi
         1. Kariri
         2. Tupian
      6. Piaroa
      7. Taruma
      8. Timote
      9. Trumai
      10. Tusha
      11. Yuracare
      12. Zamucoan
   2. Tucanoan
      1. Auixiri
      2. Canichana
      3. Capixana
      4. Catuquina
      5. Gamella
      6. Huari
      7. Iranshe
      8. Kaliana–Maku
         1. Auake
         2. Kaliana
         3. Maku
      9. Koaia
      10. Movima
      11. Muniche
      12. Nambikwara
      13. Natu
      14. Pankaruru
      15. Puinave
      16. Shukura
      17. Ticuna–Yuri
          1. Ticuna
          2. Yuri
      18. Tucanoan
      19. Uman
6. Ge–Pano–Carib
   1. Macro-Ge
      1. Bororo
      2. Botocudo
      3. Caraja
      4. Chiquito
      5. Erikbatsa
      6. Fulnio
      7. Ge–Kaingang
         1. Ge
         2. Kaingang
      8. Guato
      9. Kamakan
      10. Mashakali
      11. Opaie
      12. Oti
      13. Puri
      14. Yabuti
   2. Macro-Panoan
      1. Charruan
      2. Lengua
      3. Lule–Vilela
         1. Lule
         2. Vilela
      4. Mataco–Guaicuru
         1. Guaicuru
         2. Mataco
      5. Moseten
      6. Pano–Tacanan
         1. Panoan
         2. Tacanan
   3. Macro-Carib
      1. Andoke
      2. Bora–Uitoto
         1. Boro
         2. Uitoto
         3. Carib
         4. Kukura
         5. Yagua

Mixed languages

In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America, Lyle Campbell describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas.^[20] Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.

• Medny Aleut (Copper Island Aleut)
• Chinook Jargon
• Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon)
• Loucheux Jargon
• Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif)
• Broken Oghibbeway (Broken Ojibwa)
• Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
• Delaware Jargon
• Pidgin Massachusett
• Jargonized Powhatan
• Lingua Franca Creek
• Lingua Franca Apalachee
• Mobilian Jargon
• Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua)
• Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio)
• Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language
• Media Lengua
• Catalangu
• Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
• Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
• Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral)
• Labrador Eskimo Pidgin
• Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750–1850)
• Nootka Jargon (18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
• Trader Navajo
• Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin)
• Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah)
• Haida Jargon
• Kutenai Jargon
• Guajiro-Spanish mixed language

Lingua francas

• Ocaneechi (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
• Tuscarora language
• Plains sign language

Linguistic areas

See main article: Linguistic areas of the Americas.

See also

• Indigenous languages of South America
  • List of indigenous languages of South America
• List of extinct languages of South America
  • Extinct languages of the Marañón River basin
  • List of extinct Uto-Aztecan languages
• List of unclassified languages of South America
  • • Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Classification of Southeast Asian languages
• Intercontinental Dictionary Series

Bibliography

• See:

External links

• Native American Language Net
• Web site: Vocabulários e dicionários de línguas indígenas brasileiras . Renato . Nicolai . 2006.
• Web site: Línguas Indígenas . Victor A. . Petrucci . 2007.
• Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)
• Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors, The University of Texas at Austin
• The Intercontinental Dictionary Series

Notes and References

1. Web site: Glottolog . 4.1 . Hammarström . Harald . Forkel . Robert . Haspelmath . Martin . 2019 . Jena . Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
2. Voegelin . C. F. . Voegelin . F. M. . October 1965 . Languages of the World: Native America Fascicle Two . Anthropological Linguistics . 7 . 7 . 139–145 . 30022559 . 2022-01-08.
3. Gilij, Filippo Salvatore. 1965. Ensayo de historia Americana. Spanish translation by Antonio Tovar. (Fuentes para la Historia Colonial de Venezuela, Volumes 71–73.) Caracas: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia. First published as Saggio di storia americana; o sia, storia naturale, civile e sacra de regni, e delle provincie spagnuole di Terra-Ferma nell’ America Meridionale descritto dall’ abate F. S. Gilij. Rome: Perigio [1780–1784].
4. Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1784–87. Idea dell’universo: che contiene la storia della vita dell’uomo, elementi cosmografici, viaggio estatico al mondo planetario, e storia de la terra e delle lingue. Cesena: Biasini.
5. Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1800–1805. Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas y numeracion, division, y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sus idiomas y dialectos, Volume I (1800): Lenguas y naciones Americanas. Madrid: Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia.
6. Brinton, Daniel G. 1891. The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
7. Rivet, Paul. 1924. Langues Américaines III: Langues de l’Amérique du Sud et des Antilles. In: Antoine Meillet and Marcel Cohen (ed.), Les Langues du Monde, Volume 16, 639–712. Paris: Collection Linguistique.
8. Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 6, 157–317. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
9. Jijón y Caamaño, Jacinto. 1998. El Ecuador interandino y occidental antes de la conquista castellana. Quito: Abya-Yala. First published Quito: Editorial Ecuatoriana [1940–1945].
10. Tovar, Antonio. 1961. Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur: enumeración, con indicaciones tipológicas, bibliografía y mapas. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana.
11. Tovar, Antonio and Consuelo Larrucea de Tovar. 1984. Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur. Madrid: Gredos.
12. Suárez, Jorge. 1974. South American Indian languages. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, Macropaedia 17. 105–112.
13. Book: Loukotka, Čestmír . Čestmír Loukotka . Classification of South American Indian languages . registration . UCLA Latin American Center . 1968 . Los Angeles.
14. Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. .
15. Book: Campbell, Lyle . Lyle Campbell . Grondona . Verónica . Campbell . Lyle . 2012 . The Indigenous Languages of South America . Classification of the indigenous languages of South America . The World of Linguistics . 2 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 59–166 . 978-3-11-025513-3.
16. Jolkesky . Marcelo Pinho de Valhery . 2016 . Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas . Ph.D. dissertation . Brasília . University of Brasília . 2.
17. Book: Mauricio Swadesh. Tras la huella lingüística de la prehistoria. 1987. UNAM. 978-968-36-0368-5. 114 .
18. Book: Language in the Americas. 9780804713153. Greenberg. Joseph Harold. 1987. Stanford University Press .
19. News: Earliest Americans Arrived in Waves, DNA Study Finds. The New York Times. 11 July 2012. Wade. Nicholas.
20. Book: Campbell, Lyle. Lyle Campbell. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. 1997. Oxford University Press, USA. 978-0-19-509427-5. 18–25.