pronounced as /notice/In historical linguistics, the High German consonant shift or second Germanic consonant shift is a phonological development (sound change) that took place in the southern parts of the West Germanic dialect continuum. The shift is used to distinguish High German from other continental West Germanic languages, namely Low Franconian (including standard Dutch) and Low German, which experienced no shift. The shift resulted in the affrication or spirantization of the West Germanic voiceless stop consonants /t/, /p/, and /k/, depending on position in a word. A related change, the devoicing of the voiced stopped consonants /d/, /b/ and /g/, was less widespread, with only the devoicing of /d/ being found in most dialects.
There is no consensus on when the High German consonant shift occurred; it probably began between the 3rd and 5th centuries and was complete before the first written examples in Old High German, the earliest recorded stage of High German, were produced in the 8th century. There is also no consensus on where or how the shift proceeded.
The degree of shift varies within High German. Dialects that experienced the most shift are referred to as Upper German, whereas those that only experienced some are referred to as Central German. Different dialects within Upper and Central German also received different levels of shift, with West Central German exhibiting what is known as the Rhenish fan, a gradual reduction of which consonants are shifted, as one moves north.
In most accounts, the High German consonant shift consists of two related changes:
All High German dialects have experienced at least part of the shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates. The shift of voiceless stops to fricatives/affricates has traditionally been used to distinguish different German dialects: Upper German dialects experienced the greatest degree of shift, whereas Central German dialects only experienced a partial shift (other West Germanic languages experienced no shift). Only southern dialects experience the shift of voiced to voiceless stops, with the shift of /d/ to /t/ found in Upper German and in some Central German dialects, while the shift of /b/ to /p/ and /g/ to /k/ is only found consistently in (Old) Bavarian.
Modern standard German is based mostly on East Central German dialects and thus features many but not all of the shifted forms. In particular, of the German: Medienverschiebung consonants, only the shift of /d/ to /t/ is found in almost all instances in the modern standard. The shift results in characteristic differences between modern standard German and other Germanic languages, such as:
German German: Wasser vs. English water, Dutch water, Swedish Swedish: vatten (German /s/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
German German: Zunge vs. English tongue, Dutch tong, Swedish Swedish: tunga (German /ts/ vs. other Germanic /t/)
German German: Schiff vs. English ship, Dutch schip, Swedish Swedish: skepp (German /f/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
German German: Apfel vs. English apple, Dutch appel, Swedish Swedish: äpple (German /pf/ vs. other Germanic /p/)
German German: gleich vs. English like, Dutch gelijk, Swedish Swedish: lik (German /x/ vs. other Germanic /k/)
German German: Tochter vs. English daughter, Dutch dochter, Swedish Swedish: dotter (German /t/ vs. other Germanic /d/)In modern standard German, unshifted /p/ in all positions, unshifted /t/ in most positions (as opposed to /d/ >/t/), and unshifted /k/ after a vowel only occur after a fricative (e.g. German: Stein, English stone), in the combination /tr/ (e.g. German: treu, English true), or in loanwords from Low German and foreign borrowings (e.g. German: Park from French French: parc, a doublet of German German: Pferch, both from Latin Latin: parricus).
Another change, the shift of /þ/ (pronounced as //θ//) to /d/, is sometimes seen as related to the High German consonant shift. However, it also comes to encompass the other continental West Germanic languages. The relation of this change to the second consonant shift, as well as that of another change, that of initial /x/ to /h/, is disputed. Braune and Reiffenstein discount a connection entirely.
The result of the shift of the voiceless stops pronounced as //p//, pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //k// depends on their position in the word. The degree to which the stops are shifted also shows considerable dialectal variation. In particular, the shift of /p/ and /k/ in initial position is subject to dialectal variation. While the boundaries of the dialects have shifted since the Old High German period, these differences continue to form the basis for differentiating the different modern German dialects, and, in particular, for the division between Central German dialects, which have fewer shifted consonants, and Upper German dialects, which have more.
initially, in geminates, and after another consonant, to /t͡s/:
Old Saxon tehan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: zehan (English ten, modern German German: zehn)
Old Saxon herta : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: herza (English heart, moderm German German: Herz)
Old Saxon settian : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: sezzen (English set, modern German German: setzen)
after a vowel to (ʒʒ), simplifying to (ʒ) at the end of a word, as well as frequently after a long vowel. Beginning in the 13th century, this sound merges with /s/ in most German dialects.
Old Saxon etan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ezzan (English eat, modern German German: essen)
Old Saxon bîtan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bîzan (English bite, modern German German: beißen)
Old Saxon ût : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ûz (English out, modern German German: aus)
This shift is the same across all High German dialects. However, the Central German Middle Franconian dialects show unshifted final /t/ for neuter pronouns (German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: that, German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: thit, German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: it, German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: wat, German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: allet).
initially, in geminates, and after another consonant, to /p͡f/:
Old Saxon piper : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: pfeffar (English pepper, modern German German: Pfeffer)
Old Saxon helpan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: helphan/helfan (English help, modern German German: helfen)
Old Saxon skeppian : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: skephen (English scoop, modern German German: schöpfen)
after a vowel to /ff/, simplifying to /f/ at the end of a word, as well as often after a long vowel:
Old Saxon piper : German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: pfeffar (English pepper, modern German German: Pfeffer
Old Saxon grîpan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: grîf(f)an (English gripe, modern German German: greifen)
Old Saxon skip : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: scif (English ship, modern German German: Schiff)
In Central German Middle and most Rhine Franconian dialects, the shift only takes place after a vowel:
| Old Saxon | (most) Franconian | Rest of OHG | |
|---|---|---|---|
| pad | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: pad | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: pfad | |
| appel | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: appel | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: apful | |
| kamp | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: kamp | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: kampf | |
| helpan | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: helpan/helpfan | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: helpfan/helfan | |
| opan | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: of(f)an | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: of(f)an | |
| up | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ûf | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ûf |
Additionally, some Middle Franconian dialects retain final /p/ in the preposition German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: up.
initially, in geminates, and after another consonant to /k͡x/:
Old Saxon korn : Upper OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: chorn (English corn, modern German German: Korn)
Old Saxon werk : Upper OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: werch (English work, modern German German: Werk)
Old Saxon wekkian : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: wecchan (English awake, modern German German: wecken
after a vowel to pronounced as //xx//, simplifying to /x/ at the end of a word, as well as often after a long vowel:
Old Saxon brekan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: brehhan (English break, modern German German: brechen)
Old Saxon juk : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: joh (English yoke, modern German German: Joch)
All dialects shift /k/ to /xx/ after a vowel; only the Upper German Alemannic and Bavarian shift it in other positions:
| Old Saxon | Central OHG | Far southern OHG | |
|---|---|---|---|
| kind | German: kind | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: chind | |
| stark | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: stark | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: starch | |
| makon | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: mahhon | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: mahhon | |
| ik | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ih | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ih |
/p/, /t/, and /k/ remained unshifted in all dialects when following the fricative consonants /s/, /f/, and /x/ (examples: OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: spinnan Engl. 'spin', OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: stein Engl. 'stone, OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: naht Engl. 'night'). /t/ likewise remained unshifted in the combination /tr/ (examples: OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: tretan Engl. 'tread', OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bittar Engl. 'bitter' [from West Germanic ''*bitra'']).
Prior to the shift of /d/, /b/ and /g/ in some German dialects, the West Germanic fricatives /ð/, /ƀ/ and /ʒ/ had shifted to /d/, /b/, and /g/ in all positions except in the Central German Middle Franconian dialect, where /ƀ/ and /ʒ/ remained. Like the shift to the voiceless stops, the shift to the voiced stops varies by dialect and to some degree by position in the word.
Old Saxon dor : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: tor (English door, modern German German: Tor)
Old Saxon biodan : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: biotan (no English equivalent, modern German German: bieten)
Old Saxon biddian : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bitten (English bid, modern German German: bitten)
This shift is found in Upper German and most Central German, but in Rhine Franconian only in geminates and word finally.
Old Saxon blōd : Upper OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: pluat (English blood, modern German German: Blut)
Old Saxon sibbia : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: sippa (English sib, modern German German: Sippe)
This change is found most consistently in Bavarian, where it takes place in all positions. In Alemannic, it is consistently found word finally and word initially, but b often occurs word-internally. /bb/ shifts to /pp/ in all dialects except in (Central German) Ripuarian.
Old Saxon geban : Upper OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: keban/kepan (English give, modern German German: geben)
Old Saxon hruggi : OHG German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: rucki (English ridge, modern German German: Rücken)
The change is found in Bavarian and Alemannic, most consistently word-initially, and in Bavarian also word-internally and finally. /gg/ shifts to /kk/ in all dialects except in (Central German) Ripuarian.
The shift of all three voiced stops in Upper German likely means that there was no longer any voiced-voiceless distinction in these dialects. While the stops /g/ and /b/ tend to be written /k/ and /p/ in early Upper German, by the 9th century spelling in Alemannic reverts to writing /g/ and /b/ except for the geminated stops (/kk/ and /pp/ rather than /gg/ and /bb/), and in the 10th century, Bavarian also begins to write /g/ and /b/ more often. By the Middle High German period, Bavarian only consistently writes /p/ for single /b/ in word-initial position - the state preserved in modern southern Bavarian dialects. The lack of a return of shifted /t/ (=earlier /d/) to /d/ in those dialects that underwent the shift is likely related to the subsequent shift of /þ/ (=pronounced as //θ/) to /d/ throughout the West Germanic area.
| Type of stop | Position | Proto-Germanic/Pre-Old High German Phoneme | Old High German Phoneme | Old High German word | modern standard German equivalent | Old Saxon equivalent | modern English equivalent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless | After vowels | /t/ | /ʒ(ʒ)/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: e'''ʒʒ'''an | German: e'''ss'''en | e'''t'''an | eat |
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bî'''ʒ'''an | German: bei'''ß'''en | bî'''t'''an | bite | ||||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: wa'''ʒ''' | German: wa'''s''' | wa'''t''' | what | ||||
| /p/ | /f(f)/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: o'''ff'''an | German: o'''ff'''en | o'''p'''an | open | ||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: grî'''f'''an | German: grei'''f'''en | grî'''p'''an | gripe | ||||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: û'''f''' | German: au'''f''' | û'''p''' | up | ||||
| /k/ | /χ(χ)/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ma'''hh'''ôn | German: ma'''ch'''en | ma'''k'''ôn | make | ||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bre'''hh'''an | German: bre'''ch'''en | bre'''k'''an | break | ||||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: i'''h''' | German: i'''ch''' | i'''k''' | I (Old English English, Old (ca.450-1100);: i'''c''') | ||||
| Initially, after consonants, and geminated | /t/ | /ts/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''z'''unga | German: '''Z'''unge | '''t'''unga | tongue | |
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: her'''z'''a | German: Her'''z''' | her'''t'''a | heart | ||||
| /tt/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: se'''zz'''en | German: se'''tz'''en | se'''tt'''ian | set | |||
| /p/ | /pf/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''ph'''ad | German: '''Pf'''ad | '''p'''ad | path | ||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: hel'''ph'''an | German: hel'''f'''en | hel'''p'''an | help | ||||
| /pp/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: a'''ph'''ul | German: A'''pf'''el | a'''pp'''ul | apple | |||
| /k/ | /kχ/ | Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''ch'''orn | German: '''K'''orn | '''k'''orn | corn | ||
| Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: wer'''ch''' | German: Wer'''k''' | wer'''k''' | work | ||||
| /kk/ | Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: we'''c(c)h'''en | German: we'''ck'''en | we'''kk'''ian | Old English English, Old (ca.450-1100);: we'''cc'''en | |||
| Voiced | All positions | /d/ | /t/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''t'''ohter | German: '''T'''ochter | '''d'''ohtar | daughter |
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: we'''t'''ar | German: We'''tt'''er | we'''d'''ar | weather | ||||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bin'''t'''an | German: bin'''d'''en | bin'''d'''an | bind | ||||
| German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: al'''t''' | German: al'''t''' | al'''d''' | old | ||||
| /dd/ | /tt/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: bi'''tt'''en | German: bi'''tt'''en | bi'''dd'''ian | bid | ||
| /b/ | /p/ | Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''p'''eran | German: (ge)'''b'''ären | '''b'''eran | bear | ||
| Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: si'''p'''un | German: sie'''b'''en | si'''b'''un | seven | ||||
| Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: lî'''p''' | German: Lei'''b''' | lî'''f''' | life | ||||
| /bb/ | /pp/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: si'''pp'''a | German: Si'''pp'''e | si'''bb'''ia | Old English English, Old (ca.450-1100);: si'''b''' | ||
| /g/ | /k/ | Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: '''k'''ast | German: '''G'''ast | '''g'''ast | guest | ||
| Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: stî'''k'''an | German: stei'''g'''en | stî'''g'''an | Old English English, Old (ca.450-1100);: stî'''g'''an | ||||
| Upper German German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ta'''c''' | German: Ta'''g''' | da'''g''' | day | ||||
| /gg/ | /kk/ | German, Old High (ca.750-1050);: ru'''ck'''i | German: Rü'''ck'''en | hru'''gg'''i | ridge |
There is no agreement about the time period in which the High German consonantal shift took place. Its completion is usually dated to just before the earliest attestations of Old High German (8th century CE). The change affects geminate consonants in a different manner than simple consonants, indicating that West Germanic gemination predated it; the gemination is usually dated to the 5th century CE. Additionally, Latin loanwords adopted into the language prior to the 6th century display the shift, whereas those adopted from the 8th century onward do not. The relative chronology of the different changes remains poorly understood. It is usually argued to have begun with /t/, then moved to /p/, then to /k/.
The gradually increasing application of the High German consonant shift from north to south is most extensive in the west. Here, the isoglosses defined by the occurrence of individual shifts are spread out in a fan-like manner, forming the Rheinischer Fächer ('Rhenish fan').
The northern border for the occurrence of the shift of /t/ to /(t)s/ in all positions (except in absolute final position in pronouns like dat, wat and the neuter ending -t) and the shift of /p/ and /k/ to /f/ and /x/ in intervocalic and root-final position is the Benrath line that separates the High German dialects to the south from the Low Saxon and Low Franconian dialects to the north. Further north, the consonant shift is only found with the adverb auch 'also' and a handful of pronouns that have final /k/ shifted to /x/ (ich 'I', dich 'thee', mich 'me') in the South Low Franconian dialect area, with the Uerdingen line as its northern border.
The shift of /p/ to /f/ after consonants (e.g. helpan > helfen 'help') sets off Moselle Franconian dialects from Ripuarian dialects with the latter having retained unshifted /p/. The shift of /t/ to /s/ in wat, dat > was, das etc. characterizes Rhine Franconian. The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /p/ to /pf/ (Pund > Pfund 'pound', Appel > Apfel 'apple') marks the transition from the West Central German to the Upper German dialects. East Central German is separated from West Central German through having shifted initial p (the "Pund-Fund" line); only far southern East Central German dialects retain initial /pf-/, whereas other East Central German dialects have simplified it to initial /f-/. The shift of root-initial and historically geminated /k/ to /kx/ (and further to /x/, as in Kind > Chind) occurs in the southern part of the Upper German dialect area.
| -C(-) /t/>/s/ |
| -CC- /tt/>/ts/ | -[l/r]C- /tt/>/ts/ | -C# /t/>/s/ | -C(-) /p/>/f/ |
| -CC- /pp/>/pf/ | -[l/r]C- /p/>/pf/ | -C# /p/>/f/ | -C(-) /k/>/x/ |
| -CC- /kk/>/kx/ | -[l/r]C- /k/>/kx/ | -C# /k/>/x/ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low Saxon / North Low Franconian | ||||||||||||||||||
| South Low Franconian | ||||||||||||||||||
| Ripuarian | ||||||||||||||||||
| Moselle Franconian | / | |||||||||||||||||
| Rhine Franconian | ||||||||||||||||||
| East Central German | ||||||||||||||||||
| Upper German | / | / | / | |||||||||||||||