| Hangul: | 해녀 |
| Hanja: | 海女 |
| Rr: | Haenyeo |
| Mr: | Haenyŏ |
are female divers in the South Korean province of Jeju, whose livelihood consists of harvesting a variety of mollusks, seaweed, and other sea life from the ocean. Known for their independent spirit and determination, are representative of the semi-matriarchal family structure of Jeju.[1] [2] [3]
Traditionally, girls started training as when they were 11 years old. Beginning in shallow water, trainees worked their way up to more challenging depths. After about seven years of training, a girl was considered a "full-fledged" . Today, the oldest are over 80 years old, and have been diving for more than 66 years.[4]
All together, the tools of a consist of a wetsuit, diving mask, fins,[5] gloves, chest weights (to assist diving) an L-shaped weeding hoe, and a net attached to a flotation device. The stash their catch in these nets until they are done for the day.
How long the spend in the water depends on the season. Before wetsuits were available and all they wore were cotton swimsuits, could stay in the water for only up to an hour at a time during the winter months. After an hour, they got out of the water and sat by the fire for 3–4 hours to dry off. After this break, they would jump back into the water for another hour. During the summer months, however, they stayed in the water for up to 3 hours at a time before a break. With the introduction of wetsuits, found they could stay in the water for five to six hours at a time, even during the winter.
With each dive, plunge up to deep and can hold their breath for over three minutes. Their harvests consist of abalone, conch, octopus, sea urchins, sea squirt, brown alga, top shell, a variety of sargassum, oysters and sea slugs, etc.[6] The divers must contend with dangers such as jellyfish, poor weather and sharks.[7]
Jeju's diving tradition dates back to 434 AD. Originally, diving was an exclusively male profession, with the exception of women who worked alongside their husbands. The first mention of female divers in literature does not come until the 17th century, when a monograph of Jeju geography describes them as (literally "diving women").
By the 18th century, female divers, at this point commonly referred to as, outnumbered male divers.[8] Several possible explanations exist for this shift. For instance, in the 17th century, a significant number of men died at sea due to war or deep-sea fishing accidents, meaning that diving became the work of women.[1] [9] Another explanation is that women tend to have more subcutaneous fat and a higher shivering threshold than men, making them better suited to work in cold waters.[10] An 18th century document records that taxes of dried abalone were imposed on ordinary people, forcing many women to dive in cold waters while pregnant.
As sea diving became a female-dominated industry, many of the subsequently replaced their husbands as the primary laborer.[11] [12] This trend was especially prominent after the Japanese colonized Korea in 1910 and diving became much more lucrative.[13] Up until this point, much of what the harvested was given to the Joseon government as tribute. When the Japanese took over, however, they abolished this tradition, allowing to sell their catch at market and make a profit. Additionally, Japanese and Korean merchants hired to work for them in Japan and on the Korean mainland as wage-laborers, increasing their financial situations greatly. On Yeonpyeong-ri, an island near Incheon where many worked, their wages, on average, constituted 40 to 48 percent of a typical family's total income. The prominent place of in Jeju's economy and in their individual family units continued long after Japanese colonization. In the early 1960s, for example, harvests accounted for 60% of Jeju's fisheries revenue, and 40% of husbands remained unemployed.
Like many other historical cultural practices, the sea-diving industry has fallen victim to industrialisation. Beginning in the 1960s, the Korean government sought ways to jumpstart the country's economy in every province. Because Jeju was not a practical place to build factories, the Korean government decided to turn it into an exporter of mandarin oranges. By 1969, a majority of rural workers had joined this new industry. Additionally, about 2% of all land in Jeju was dedicated to farming mandarin oranges. In the 1970s, the government launched another program to bolster Jeju's tourism industry. By 1978, tourism had surpassed agriculture as the island's largest industry.
All of this change had a significant impact on numbers. Given less-strenuous alternatives, many women abandoned the sea-diving industry. In the five years between 1965 and 1970, numbers dropped from 23,081 to 14,143. In addition, education opportunities and attractive positions in emerging industries are considered to have deterred younger girls from becoming . In 1970, 31% of were 30 years old or younger, 55% were between 30 and 49 years old and only 14% were 50 or older., however, 98% of were over the age of 50.
Because so many families relied on the for the majority of their income, a semi-matriarchal society developed on Jeju with the at the head of the household.[14] On the tiny islets off the coast of Jeju, such as Mara Island, where sea-diving was the sole source of income, this reversal of traditional gender roles was fully realized; men would look after the children and go shopping while the women would bring in money for the family. Other manifestations of Jeju's unique society include men paying a dowry to the family of the bride (a reversal of the custom on the Korean mainland) and families celebrating the birth of girls over the birth of boys.[15]
While certain elements of a matriarchal society surfaced in Jeju, they were not enough to completely overcome the predominance of Confucianism. As a result, beyond the domestic sphere, little else about Jeju society was different from what existed on the Korean mainland. For example, men filled all political leadership roles and were the only ones who could perform ancestor-worship ceremonies and inherit property and the familial line. Furthermore, during the era of colonial rule, remained peasants, never moving up the chain to become small-business owners or managers of seafood manufacturing plants. Even in the home, most remained the primary caregiver and handled at least half of the domestic chores.
Today, are celebrated as one of Jeju's most valued treasures. The Korean government shows its appreciation for the unique contributions of the to Jeju's culture by subsidizing their gear and granting them exclusive rights to sell fresh seafood. Furthermore, in March 2014, the government requested the UNESCO to add to its Intangible Cultural Heritage list. were inscribed in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List from 2016 and enlisted as South Korean Intangible Cultural Property from 2017. Directed by Koh Heeyoung Breathing Underwater was a documentary that was produced as part of wider efforts to raise awareness of, and UNESCO listing for the culture of haenyo.[16] [17]