Macro-Gunwinyguan languages should not be confused with Arnhem Land languages.
| Macro-Gunwinyguan | |
| Also Known As: | Arnhem |
| Region: | northern Australia |
| Familycolor: | Australian |
| Fam1: | Macro-Pama–Nyungan? |
| Glotto: | gunw1250 |
| Glottoname: | Gunwinyguan |
| Glotto2: | mani1293 |
| Glottoname2: | Maningrida |
| Glotto3: | mang1423 |
| Glottoname3: | Mangarrayi-Maran |
| Glotto4: | kung1259 |
| Glottoname4: | Kungarakany |
| Glotto5: | gaga1251 |
| Glottoname5: | Gaagudju |
| Child1: | Maningrida |
| Child2: | Gunwinyguan |
| Child3: | East Arnhem |
| Child4: | Marran |
| Child5: | Alawa |
| Child6: | Mangarrayi |
| Child7: | Kungarakany |
| Child8: | Gagudju |
| Map: | Arnhem_languages.png |
| Mapcaption: | The Arnhem languages (purple), and other non-Pama–Nyungan languages (grey). Below (closeup): the individual families. |
| Map2: | Arnhem_languages_(closeup).png |
| Mapcaption2: | |
The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.
Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.
Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs.[1] The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:[2]
This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages.)
Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).[3]
Heath (1990)[4] demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).[5] [6]
However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.[2]) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:
Kungarakany, Mangarrayi, Marra, Maningrida, Ngalakgan, Bininj Kunwok (Gunwinggu), Warndarrang, Uwinymil, Gaagudju, Dalabon, Kunbarlang, Rembarrnga, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Warray, Ngandi
*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.
Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.
Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.[7]
In 2003, he proposed that they are also related to the Eastern Daly languages.[8]
Capell (1940) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:[9]
| gloss | Ngaɖi | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| man | biniṉ | giɖimarg | ŋarga | |
| woman | muli‘muliŋ | baramimbaṉ | gandar | |
| head | gungɔidj | gɔidjgɔidj | waːlu | |
| eye | gunmin | wumu | milba | |
| nose | gungɛb | wumɛːli | mulju | |
| mouth | gundaŋ | djaːɖɛɽ | lira | |
| tongue | gundjɛn | ŋaːg | djälaṉ | |
| stomach | gunjan | mugmaɳɖi | djaːla | |
| bone | gunmuruŋ | gɛːgɛg | gidji | |
| blood | gungulba | moɭobin | djugän | |
| kangaroo | gɔɳɔbɔlɔ | goːin | djädji | |
| opossum | djɛːbui | gundärbu | djaŋana | |
| emu | gurugaiju | maɳɖɛb | ||
| crow | waːg | djidaːwun | djäŋilga | |
| fly | bɔːd | mog | ŋurin | |
| sun | gunduŋ | gaːnag | bɽaŋu | |
| moon | diːd | wurana | jagan | |
| fire | gunɽag | wiɖidj | waɭu | |
| smoke | gundɔlŋ | wungawu | gundjuru | |
| water | gunɽɔin | njunjug | ŋaba |
Capell (1942) lists the following additional basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:[10]
| gloss | Gundangbon | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| man | binin | binin | nanamamalja | nawarinjuŋ | nawaɽiji | nijul | biː | jawurin | biji | |
| woman | dalug | ŋalwareːrulg | wudáriŋga | ŋaramaninjuŋ | ŋiwoibi | namanaŋ | diŋ‘ | giɖigiɖ | girigidj | |
| head | gungoidj | gungoidan | ariŋga | jinag | wugululu | gulaŋ | djara | gɔidj | gɔidj | |
| eye | gunmiːm | gunmiːm | meːnba | bagaɭa | mamaguɽ | maŋandjula | gaindjulja | mïmï | mumu | |
| nose | gungəb | gungəb | aminda | jɔmɔːr | wundjíriba | gwijiban | giːja | djɛː | djɛː | |
| mouth | gundaŋ | gundaŋ | adira | ɽamadan | wuŋaːndal | gudagula | diːjälŋ | daːləː | dalugaɽa‘ | |
| tongue | gundjen | gundjen | aljäljigba | laːn | wudjijil | gudälŋ | diːjälŋ | dɛl | djɛn | |
| stomach | gunjam | gunmelem | mulgwa | ŋuɖan | wuŋandja | mowara | giːna | guː | ŋu‘ | |
| bone | gunmuruŋ | gunmuruŋ | adidira | ŋagaɽa | wuŋaɽaga | guŋaɽaga | balmana | mɔː | mɔː | |
| blood | gungulba | gungulba | meːra | wulaŋ | maŋulidji | mabaɳgo | gulbana | guraidj | gulba | |
| kangaroo | goɳobolo | gundagi | juburáda | ŋargọ | mulbia | mulbia | bulaidj-bulaidj | guiṉ | guiṉ | |
| opossum | djɛːbui | duri | juguŋba | jirgi | ajirgin | aɖawa | marŋo | dugula | dugula | |
| emu | gurugaiju | wajin | ŋiwurugan | awurban | ŋuroɖo | ŋuroɖo | ||||
| crow | waːg | waːg | jiŋwa | wɔːwag | waɽgwaɽg | awa‘wa | wa‘wa‘ | wa‘wa‘ | wa‘wa‘ | |
| fly | bɔːd | bɔːd | juwama | amun | awamun | abɔd | buad | mɔɽ | bɔːd | |
| sun | gunduŋ | ŋalbɛnbe | mamaːwura | aɭir | ŋinguŋaru | mawaɭir | muda | walir | bɛbagar | |
| moon | diːɖ | diːɖ | jimaːwura | labama | nadaŋadaŋa | nigurŋa | gurŋa | diɖ | gurŋa | |
| fire | gunag | gunag | aŋuɽa | ŋuɽa | wuŋambur | gudaŋi | ŋuɽa | mimäl | mimäl | |
| smoke | gundɔlŋ | gundɔlŋ | aŋwara | wuŋuban | wundular | gubán | dɔːɭŋ | dɔlgnɔ | djunör | |
| water | gogo | gunɽɔːṉ | aguŋwa | agogo | wuŋaladja | gujärg | djula | waː | waː |
| Proto-Gunwinyguan | |
| Familycolor: | Australian |
| Target: | Gunwinyguan languages |
Below are some reconstructed Proto-Gunwinyguan (i.e., Proto-Gunwinyguan proper) animal and plant names from Harvey (2003):[11]
| 8 | gudgeon sp. | Uncoded languages: *cakorlk | |
| 10 | Uncoded languages: *calarr | ||
| 18 | Uncoded languages: *campVn/rn | ||
| 26 | Uncoded languages: *cangkurr | ||
| 31 | Uncoded languages: *cappo | ||
| 32 | Uncoded languages: *cappurtenyqrteny | ||
| 35 | Uncoded languages: *carla | ||
| 38 | Uncoded languages: *carnarran | ||
| 39 | Uncoded languages: *carnpalcarnpal | ||
| 42 | Uncoded languages: *carrkka | ||
| 44 | Uncoded languages: *carrurtrtu | ||
| 49 | Uncoded languages: *catngerecngerec | ||
| 53 | Uncoded languages: *cawok | ||
| 70 | Uncoded languages: *cetperte | ||
| 77 | Uncoded languages: *cikirricikirric | ||
| 80 | Uncoded languages: *cilikuypi | ||
| 96 | Uncoded languages: *cirrirnrti(t) | ||
| 102 | Uncoded languages: *cirrpili | ||
| 103 | Uncoded languages: *cirrpiyuk | ||
| 105 | Uncoded languages: *co(wo)c | ||
| 107 | Uncoded languages: *cokparl | ||
| 108 | Uncoded languages: *cokpiny | ||
| 121 | Uncoded languages: *cotet | ||
| 127 | Uncoded languages: *cucca | ||
| 128 | Uncoded languages: *cukerre | ||
| 138 | Uncoded languages: *curerrk | ||
| 139 | kingfisher sp. | Uncoded languages: *curk | |
| 142 | Uncoded languages: *curn | ||
| 143 | Uncoded languages: *curnrtupolq | ||
| 145 | Uncoded languages: *currang | ||
| 148 | tawny frogmouth, owl sp. | Uncoded languages: *currul | |
| 152 | Uncoded languages: *Cakot | ||
| 154 | Uncoded languages: *Calmarr | ||
| 173 | Uncoded languages: *Cawarl | ||
| 178 | Uncoded languages: *Ciningkirric | ||
| 215 | Uncoded languages: *kanci | ||
| 230 | Uncoded languages: *karlarlppa | ||
| 232 | Uncoded languages: *karlerrq | ||
| 237 | Uncoded languages: *karnamarr | ||
| 238 | Uncoded languages: *karnampal | ||
| 239 | emu, large feathers on emu | Uncoded languages: *karnanganyca | |
| 241 | Uncoded languages: *karnma | ||
| 249 | Uncoded languages: *karnrteken | ||
| 253 | Uncoded languages: *karrak | ||
| 255 | Uncoded languages: *karral/rla | ||
| 264 | Uncoded languages: *karrkkany | ||
| 275 | Uncoded languages: *kawirVq | ||
| 276 | Uncoded languages: *kawk | ||
| 277 | Uncoded languages: *kaworlk | ||
| 336 | Uncoded languages: *korrowkkorrow | ||
| 344 | Uncoded languages: *kowarrang | ||
| 347 | Uncoded languages: *koyow | ||
| 353 | Uncoded languages: *kulppiny | ||
| 359 | Uncoded languages: *kuluyqkuluy | ||
| 364 | Uncoded languages: *kungar(l)ak | ||
| 369 | Uncoded languages: *kunungu | ||
| 374 | paperbark sp. | Uncoded languages: *kurlkurl | |
| 378 | ibis sp. | Uncoded languages: *kurnrtirnrtirn | |
| 384 | Uncoded languages: *kurri | ||
| 385 | Uncoded languages: *kurrmul/rlu | ||
| 388 | Uncoded languages: *kurrucartu | ||
| 405 | Uncoded languages: *kVngV | ||
| 408 | Uncoded languages: *kVrVwVk | ||
| 417 | Uncoded languages: *Lampalk | ||
| 433 | Uncoded languages: *Leppal | ||
| 442 | Uncoded languages: *Lirrapin | ||
| 448 | Uncoded languages: *Lopolopo | ||
| 464 | Uncoded languages: *maccurn | ||
| 467 | Uncoded languages: *makkakkurr | ||
| 485 | Uncoded languages: *manappurn | ||
| 495 | Uncoded languages: *marla | ||
| 511 | Uncoded languages: *marrampal | ||
| 523 | Uncoded languages: *martawk | ||
| 528 | Uncoded languages: *martpiny | ||
| 530 | Uncoded languages: *martukkal | ||
| 561 | Uncoded languages: *milqtarl | ||
| 570 | Uncoded languages: *mirricci | ||
| 586 | Uncoded languages: *morlel | ||
| 598 | Uncoded languages: *muc | ||
| 617 | Uncoded languages: *muqmu | ||
| 625 | Uncoded languages: *murru | ||
| 637 | Uncoded languages: *Na-cik | ||
| 639 | Uncoded languages: *Namarnkorl | ||
| 644 | Uncoded languages: *Nangamung | ||
| 645 | Uncoded languages: *Nangkurru | ||
| 664 | Uncoded languages: *ngakngak | ||
| 667 | Uncoded languages: *ngalelek | ||
| 684 | Uncoded languages: *ngarrac | ||
| 685 | Uncoded languages: *ngarrayarl | ||
| 687 | Uncoded languages: *ngart | ||
| 690 | Uncoded languages: *ngatpan | ||
| 702 | Uncoded languages: *ngerrk | ||
| 756 | tree rat | Uncoded languages: *pakkaci | |
| 801 | Uncoded languages: *parnangka | ||
| 807 | Uncoded languages: *parraca | ||
| 808 | darter (bird sp.) | Uncoded languages: *parrakparrak | |
| 812 | Uncoded languages: *parrk | ||
| 820 | Uncoded languages: *partrti | ||
| 824 | Uncoded languages: *paya | ||
| 827 | Uncoded languages: *pekka | ||
| 831 | gecko spp. | Uncoded languages: *pelerrk | |
| 839 | Uncoded languages: *penuk | ||
| 845 | Uncoded languages: *perrepperrep | ||
| 846 | Uncoded languages: *perrertperrert | ||
| 847 | Uncoded languages: *pettelerrelerre | ||
| 850 | Uncoded languages: *piccirri | ||
| 856 | Uncoded languages: *pilkpilk | ||
| 866 | Uncoded languages: *pirlmu | ||
| 873 | Uncoded languages: *pirnrtu | ||
| 887 | Uncoded languages: *poccalk | ||
| 904 | Uncoded languages: *porlokko | ||
| 906 | Uncoded languages: *pornorrong | ||
| 915 | Uncoded languages: *poywek | ||
| 923 | Uncoded languages: *pukpuk | ||
| 932 | Uncoded languages: *pumapuma | ||
| 934 | Uncoded languages: *punupun | ||
| 941 | Uncoded languages: *purarr | ||
| 954 | Uncoded languages: *purrurtci | ||
| 963 | red-eyed pigeon | Uncoded languages: *rakul | |
| 976 | Uncoded languages: *rumuq | ||
| 981 | Uncoded languages: *Talak | ||
| 997 | Uncoded languages: *Tarrapiya | ||
| 1009 | Uncoded languages: *Tetterran | ||
| 1012 | Uncoded languages: *Tewtew | ||
| 1020 | Uncoded languages: *Tirlkrtirlk | ||
| 1024 | Uncoded languages: *Tirt | ||
| 1025 | Uncoded languages: *Tiwana | ||
| 1034 | Uncoded languages: *Torriya | ||
| 1045 | Uncoded languages: *Tukula | ||
| 1049 | Uncoded languages: *Tulukkurr | ||
| 1067 | Uncoded languages: *thakparrarraq | ||
| 1093 | Uncoded languages: *thumpi | ||
| 1097 | Uncoded languages: *thungkaq | ||
| 1100 | Uncoded languages: *T(h)atpe | ||
| 1115 | Uncoded languages: *wakwak | ||
| 1123 | Uncoded languages: *walppurrungku | ||
| 1171 | Uncoded languages: *warrkcirt | ||
| 1196 | Uncoded languages: *werec | ||
| 1206 | Uncoded languages: *wirik | ||
| 1216 | bird sp.; rainbow bee-eater; kingfisher; whipbirds | Uncoded languages: *wirritwirrit | |
| 1217 | Uncoded languages: *wirriwirriyak | ||
| 1231 | Uncoded languages: *wor(o)cwor(o)c | ||
| 1244 | possum sp. | Uncoded languages: *wumpu | |
| 1274 | Uncoded languages: *yarr | ||
| 1291 | bird sp.; mopoke; kite | Uncoded languages: *yerr/riny | |
| 1303 | Uncoded languages: *yirrkkup | ||
| 1314 | lightning; rain; Leichhardt's grasshopper [seen in wet season] | Uncoded languages: *yurr |
| 2 | Grevillea pteridifolia | Uncoded languages: *caca ~ Uncoded languages: *yacca | |
| 12 | Uncoded languages: *calng | ||
| 30 | wattle sp. | Uncoded languages: *capec | |
| 36 | Uncoded languages: *carlung | ||
| 40 | Uncoded languages: *carnqpa | ||
| 54 | water lily stem | Uncoded languages: *cawqcaw | |
| 60 | Grevillea sp. | Uncoded languages: *cenkererr | |
| 63 | Uncoded languages: *cenycok | ||
| 67 | pandanus mat | Uncoded languages: *cerrpe | |
| 82 | Capparis umbonata | Uncoded languages: *ciliwirn | |
| 85 | Pandanus aquaticus | Uncoded languages: *cimcim | |
| 93 | Uncoded languages: *cirnirrin/ny | ||
| 141 | Uncoded languages: *curluq | ||
| 223 | Uncoded languages: *kappay | ||
| 235 | Uncoded languages: *karlngka/iny | ||
| 236 | wattle sp., woomera type | Uncoded languages: *karlppu | |
| 244 | Acacia sp. | Uncoded languages: *karnpirr | |
| 258 | spinifex sp. | Uncoded languages: *karrarnrtalk | |
| 278 | tree sp., Gardenia megasperma, Capparis umbonata | Uncoded languages: *kayapam | |
| 321 | Uncoded languages: *kongkong | ||
| 329 | Planchonia careya | Uncoded languages: *korlq | |
| 334 | pandanus husk | Uncoded languages: *korrmo | |
| 341 | Uncoded languages: *kot | ||
| 345 | Uncoded languages: *kowk | ||
| 377 | Uncoded languages: *kurnrtalq | ||
| 379 | Flacourtia territorialis | Uncoded languages: *kurnrtun/rn | |
| 398 | Terminalia grandiflora | Uncoded languages: *kutt/rtrtu | |
| 402 | Banksia dentata | Uncoded languages: *kuypuk | |
| 431 | Opilia amentacea | Uncoded languages: *Leklek | |
| 461 | Uncoded languages: *ma(rt)rtawk | ||
| 482 | Canthium lucidum | Uncoded languages: *mamtak | |
| 513 | palm sp., Cycas media | Uncoded languages: *marrappi | |
| 527 | eucalyptus sp. | Uncoded languages: *martpa | |
| 529 | Uncoded languages: *martu | ||
| 576 | Uncoded languages: *moc | ||
| 599 | Uncoded languages: *muccu | ||
| 602 | paperbark sp. | Uncoded languages: *mul/rlmu | |
| 604 | Uncoded languages: *mululuk | ||
| 607 | Uncoded languages: *mulyurruny | ||
| 627 | Uncoded languages: *murrungkurn | ||
| 677 | eucalyptus sp. | Uncoded languages: *ngapak | |
| 689 | Uncoded languages: *ngaththu | ||
| 704 | Uncoded languages: *ngik | ||
| 708 | pandanus sp. | Uncoded languages: *ngokngo | |
| 711 | Uncoded languages: *ngolongkoq | ||
| 776 | Ficus opposita | Uncoded languages: *pampul/rla | |
| 802 | Owenia vernicosa | Uncoded languages: *parnarr | |
| 825 | Uncoded languages: *pe/irrke/iq | ||
| 826 | Uncoded languages: *pecca | ||
| 843 | eucalyptus sp. | Uncoded languages: *pernpern | |
| 865 | Acacia holosericea | Uncoded languages: *pirliwirli | |
| 880 | Uncoded languages: *pirtippirti | ||
| 896 | Uncoded languages: *pon | ||
| 898 | wattle sp. | Uncoded languages: *pongka | |
| 925 | paperbark sp. | Uncoded languages: *pul(p)pul | |
| 935 | clump of bamboo; Bambusa arnhemica | Uncoded languages: *-puny | |
| 953 | Cassytha filiformis | Uncoded languages: *purrurnpurrurn | |
| 955 | Xanthostemon paradoxus | Uncoded languages: *purt/lu | |
| 958 | tree sp. - Brachychiton diversifolium | Uncoded languages: *putput | |
| 962 | Uncoded languages: *rakkalaq | ||
| 971 | Uncoded languages: *rok | ||
| 977 | ridge; blacksoil area; grass used in corroborees | Uncoded languages: *ruwurr | |
| 999 | Phragmites | Uncoded languages: *Tarrin | |
| 1058 | Uncoded languages: *Tupal | ||
| 1089 | Uncoded languages: *thorrowq | ||
| 1091 | Acacia holosericea | Uncoded languages: *thukkul | |
| 1095 | Canthium attenuatum, Exocarpos latifolius | Uncoded languages: *thumuk | |
| 1096 | Uncoded languages: *thumurluk | ||
| 1101 | Uncoded languages: *T(h)ayarr | ||
| 1154 | vine sp. - Cynanchum pedunculatum | Uncoded languages: *warnpek | |
| 1169 | Uncoded languages: *warrinycalan | ||
| 1181 | Grevillea pteridifolia | Uncoded languages: *watpar | |
| 1239 | Uncoded languages: *wucal | ||
| 1259 | Uncoded languages: *yakngarra |