Missak Manouchian Explained

Missak Manouchian
Birth Date:1 September 1909 (registered 1906)
Birth Place:Adıyaman, Ottoman Empire
Death Place:Fort Mont-Valérien, Suresnes, Occupied France
Death Cause:Execution by firing squad
Resting Place:Ivry Cemetery, Ivry-sur-Seine[1]
Other Names:Michel Manouchian (francized)[2] [3]
Occupation:Trade unionist, poet, translator, political activist
Organization:FTP-MOI
Party:French Communist Party (from 1934)
Movement:Labour movement, Anti-fascism, French Resistance
Spouse:Mélinée (née Assadourian)
Signature:Signature de Missak Manouchian.jpg

Missak Manouchian (Armenian: Միսաք Մանուշեան; in Armenian pronounced as /misɑkʰ manuʃjɑn/, 1 September 1909 – 21 February 1944) was an Armenian poet and communist activist. A survivor of the 1915 - 1916 Armenian genocide, he moved to France from an orphanage in Lebanon in 1925. He was active in communist Armenian literary circles. During World War II, he became the military commissioner of FTP-MOI, a group consisting of European immigrants, including many Jews, in the Paris Region which carried out assassinations and bombings of Nazi targets. According to one author, the Manouchian group was the most active one of the French Resistance.[4] Manouchian and many of his comrades were arrested in November 1943 and executed by the Nazis at Fort Mont-Valérien on 21 February 1944. He is considered a hero of the French Resistance and was entombed in the Panthéon in Paris.[5] [6] [7]

Early life

Manouchian is registered as being born on 1 September 1906 in Adıyaman, in Mamuret-ul-Aziz Vilayet, Ottoman Empire into an Armenian peasant family. It was discovered in February 2024 that he was in fact born in 1909, when pages from his notebooks, discovered in May 2023 by his family at the Charents Museum of Literature and Arts, were obtained at the last minute for the exhibition celebrating his transfer to the Panthéon, and exhibited although not yet exploited by French researchers, as they were written in Armenian: his great-grandniece Hasmik Manouchian read in an entry dated February 1935 that he was 25. She said that this corroborated family stories that he had made himself older by three years, as he was not 18 when he arrived in France, but 15, too young to be allowed to work. The historian Denis Peschanski, who curated the exhibition, pointed out that this was relatively common for immigrants to France at the time. His tomb at the Panthéon, installed a short time before, is engraved with the date 1906.[8] [9]

His parents were killed during the Armenian genocide of 1915, but he and his brother managed to survive.[10] [11] In the early 1920s he settled in an Armenian General Benevolent Union-run orphanage in Jounieh, Lebanon, then a French protectorate. He acquired education there and in 1925 moved to France.

Eventually, Manouchian settled in Paris, where he took a job as a lathe operator at a Citroën plant. During this period he was self-educated and often visited libraries in the Latin Quarter. He joined the General Confederation of Labour (Confédération Générale du Travail, CGT), a national association of trade unions which was the first of the five major French confederations. In the early 1930s, when the world-wide economic crisis of the Great Depression set in, Missak Manouchian lost his job. Disaffected with capitalism, he began earning a meager living by posing as a model for sculptors.

Political and literary career

In 1934, Manouchian joined the French Communist Party. From 1935 to 1937 he edited the Armenian-language left-wing weekly newspaper Zangou, named after a river in Armenia. The newspaper was anti-fascist, anti-Dashnak, anti-imperialist and pro-Soviet.

Manouchian wrote poetry and, with an Armenian friend who used the pseudonym of Séma (Kégham Atmadjian), founded two communist-leaning literary magazines, Tchank ("Effort") and Mechagouyt ("Culture").[12] They published articles on French literature and Armenian culture. The two young men translated the poetry of Baudelaire, Verlaine, and Rimbaud into Armenian, making many of these works available in Armenian for the first time. Both Manouchian and Séma enrolled at the Sorbonne to follow courses in literature, philosophy, economics, and history.

The following year, he was elected secretary of the Relief Committee for Armenia (HOC), an organization associated with the MOI (Immigrant Workforce Movement). At a meeting of the HOC in 1935, he met Mélinée Assadourian, who became his companion and, later, his wife.

World War II

When the Second World War broke out in September 1939 Manouchian was arrested for his suspect communist ties, but was released in October and conscripted into the French 4th Specialist Training Company and dispatched to Brittany. After the defeat of June 1940, he returned to Paris to find that his militant activities had become illegal. (French authorities had banned the Communist Party as early as September 1939.) On 22 June 1941, when the invasion of the Soviet Union by the Nazis began, Manouchian was arrested by the occupying Germans in an anti-communist round-up in Paris. Interned in a prison camp at Compiègne, by the efforts of his wife Mélinée Assadourian, he was released after a few weeks without being charged.[13]

Manouchian became the political chief of the Armenian section of the underground MOI, but little is known about his activities until 1943. In February of that year, Manouchian transferred to the FTP-MOI, a group of gunmen and saboteurs attached to the MOI in Paris.

Manouchian became the leader of the FTP-MOI in June/August 1943, replacing Boris Holban.[14] Manouchian assumed command of three detachments, totaling about 50 fighters. The Manouchian group is credited with the assassination on 28 September 1943, of General Julius Ritter, the assistant in France to Fritz Sauckel, responsible for the mobilization and deportation of labor under the German STO (Obligatory Work Service) in Nazi-occupied Europe. (The attack was made by the partisans Marcel Rayman, Léo Kneller, and Celestino Alfonso.) The Manouchian groups carried out almost thirty successful attacks on German interests from August to November 1943.[15] Charles Aznavour and his family were members of the Manouchian resistance group, and were recognized after the war for rescuing Jews and Armenians from Nazi persecution.[16]

Arrest and execution

On 16 November 1943,[17] the collaborationist French police forces arrested the Manouchian group[18] at Évry-Petit Bourg. His companion, Mélinée, managed to escape the police.[19]

Manouchian and the others were tortured to gain information, and eventually handed over to the Germans' Geheime Feldpolizei (GFP). The 23 were given a 1944 show trial for propaganda purposes before execution. Manouchian and 21 of his comrades were shot at Fort Mont-Valérien near Paris on 21 February 1944.[20] [21] The remaining group member, Olga Bancic, was deported to Stuttgart and beheaded there in May 1944.[22]

In his last letter to his wife, Mélinée, Manouchian said that he forgave everyone except the one who betrayed us to save his skin and those who sold us. "There was consensus that they were betrayed by one of their number,, who was arrested and tortured by the Nazis (before being released and shot by the Resistance). But some survivors also felt the French Communist Party had sacrificed the unit by refusing to smuggle vital Jewish combatants out of Paris after the French police began to tail them."

Photographs of French Resistance agents facing a firing squad of Nazi officers were discovered in December 2009, and Serge Klarsfeld identified them as Manouchian and his group members.[23] The photographs began being permanently exhibited at Fort Mont-Valérien in June 2010.[24]

L'Affaire Manouchian

In June 1985, a television documentary by Mosco Boucault with the historian Stéphane Courtois working as a consultant entitled Des terroristes à la retraite (Terrorists in Retirement) was aired. The documentary started an intense dispute over the identity of the informer who betrayed Manouchian and the rest of groupe Manouchian in 1943. In the documentary, Mélinée Manouchian accused Boris Holban of being the informer. In the 1986 book L'Affaire Manouchian by Philippe Robrieux, Holban was accused of being a member of an "ultra-secret special apparatus" within the PCF that took its orders from the Kremlin and that Holban had betrayed the groupe Manouchian on orders from Moscow. The French journalist Alexandre Adler, in a series of articles in the Socialist newspaper Le Matin, defended Holban, arguing that he was not in Paris in the fall of 1943 and thus was not in a position to know the address of Manouchian or anyone else in his group. Adler drew attention to a 1980 article in the Romanian journal Magazin istoric by the FTP-MOI intelligence chief Cristina Luca Boico, where she mentions that Holban was leading a maquis band in the Ardennes in November 1943 and had not been in Paris for some time. L'Affaire Manouchian was finally settled in the 1990s when French police records were opened, revealing that Joseph Davidowicz, a resistance fighter who was arrested and then released by the Gestapo, was the informer who betrayed Manouchian. Davidowicz was later killed by fellow resistance members, who accused him of spying for the Germans.[25]

Recognition

Following World War II, Armenians were perceived in France positively "solely in the reflective light of Missak Manouchian, who played an important role in the French anti-Nazi resistance."[26] Manouchian is a prominent figure in the bilateral relations between Armenia and France.[27]

In 2007, an exhibition dedicated to Manouchian was held at the Musée Jean Moulin in Paris in the scope of the Year of Armenia in France.[28] [29] On 21 February 2014, on the 70th anniversary of the execution of Manouchian and his group, a commemoration ceremony was held at Fort Mont-Valérien. Notable attendees included French President François Hollande, Armenian Foreign Minister Eduard Nalbandyan and prominent French-Armenian singer Charles Aznavour.[30] [31] On 13 March 2014, the Missak Manouchian Park was opened in central Yerevan, the Armenian capital, in attendance of Presidents Serzh Sargsyan and Hollande.[32] [33]

On 5 March 1955, a street named for the Manouchian Group (fr) was dedicated in the 20th arrondissement of Paris.[34]

In 1978, a statue of Manouchian sculpted by Ara Harutyunyan was opened in the military cemetery of Ivry-sur-Seine, Paris.

A commemorative plaque was installed on 22 February 2009 at 11 rue de Plaisance, in the 14th arrondissement of Paris. The old hotel at this address was the last home shared by Manouchian and his wife, Mélinée.[35] [36]

In February 2010, busts of Manouchian were inaugurated in Marseille, in a square named after him, and in Issy-les-Moulineaux.[37] In June 2014, the memorial in Marseille was defaced with a swastika.[38] Two far-right activists, who admitted their participation, were sentenced to 100 hours of community service in January 2015.[39]

Due to his communist ideology, Manouchian was immediately recognized as a hero in the Soviet Union. Soviet Armenian author Marietta Shaginyan described him as an "example of an Armenian who preserved his nationality, and at the same time became a class-conscious worker and a militant communist in his adopted country."[40] Russian poet Sergei Shervinsky hailed him in a 1956 Ogoniok article as a "Fighter, Worker, Poet".[41] A school in Yerevan, Armenia—founded in 1947—was named for Manouchian in 1963.[42]

Pantheonization

In January 2022 a campaign was launched by Nicolas Daragon, mayor of Valence, Drôme, and Jean-Pierre Sakoun, president of Comité Laïcité République, and others to move Manouchian's ashes to the Panthéon. Supporters included Katia Guiragossian, a great-niece of Missak and Mélinée Manouchian, sociologist Nathalie Heinich, historian Denis Peschanski, and others.[43] It further gained the support of the mayors of Paris and Marseille Anne Hidalgo and Benoît Payan,[44] [45] [46] [47] former French ambassador to Armenia Jonathan Lacôte,[48] and MPs from various parties.[49] In March 2022 Europe 1 reported that French President Emmanuel Macron was planning pantheonization of Manouchian. A close presidential adviser was quoted as saying: "This file is at the top of the pile."[50] Le Monde reported Macron met with supporters of the campaign on March 30, 2022 at the Élysée Palace and several days later, Macron said of Manouchian: "I think he is a very great figure and that makes a lot of sense." Early 2024 is being discussed the likely date of the ceremony in commemoration of the 80th anniversary of his execution or the Normandy landings.[51] Missak Manouchian and his wife Mélinée were entombed in the Panthéon on 21 February 2024 for the commemoration of his execution's 80th anniversary.[52] [53] He became the first foreign Resistance fighter and first communist to enter the Panthéon.[54] [55]

In popular culture

Films

See also

Bibliography

Further reading

. Didier Daeninckx. Missak: l'enfant de l'Affiche rouge. 2009. Perrin. 978-2262028022. fr.

. . L'Affaire Manouchian. 1986. Fayard. Paris. 2213017875. fr.

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Tombe Missak et Mélinée Manouchian. acam-france.org. Association Culturelle Arménienne de Marne-la-Vallée. fr.
  2. Book: Walter, Gérard.

    . . Paris Under the Occupation. 1960. Orion Press. 209.

  3. Book: Maury. Pierre. La résistance communiste en France, 1940–1945: mémorial aux martyrs communistes. 2006. Temps des cerises. 240. fr.
  4. Book: Argyle. Ray. The Paris Game: Charles de Gaulle, the Liberation of Paris, and the Gamble that Won France. 2014. Dundurn. 9781459722873. 434.
  5. News: Hommage au résistant Missak Manouchian. Le Parisien. 15 November 2014. fr. ...au héros de la résistance et militant communiste Missak Manouchian....
  6. News: de Chabalier. Blaise. Stéphane Courtois : "Manouchian fut une erreur de casting". Le Figaro. 16 September 2009. fr. Morts en héros, Missak Manouchian....
  7. Web site: 2024-02-21 . EN DIRECT - Missak Manouchian et ses frères d'armes étrangers sont entrés au Panthéon . 2024-02-21 . Le Figaro . fr.
  8. News: Chemin. Ariane. Missak Manouchian n’est pas mort à 37 ans, mais à 34 : le résistant s’était vieilli de trois ans à son arrivée en France. fr. 6 March 2024. Le Monde. Paris. 0395-2037.
  9. News: Erreur sur la stèle de Missak Manouchian au Panthéon : le résistant n’est pas né en 1906 mais en 1909. Durieux. Jeanne. fr. Le Figaro. Paris. 8 March 2024. 0182-5852.
  10. Book: Houssin. Monique. Résistantes et résistants en Seine-Saint-Denis: un nom, une rue, une histoire. 2004. Editions de l'Atelier. 9782708237308. 252. fr.
  11. Web site: Missak Manouchian (le Chef). 14 April 2010. L'affiche Rouge.
  12. Atamian. Christopher. What's Happened to Our Culture in the Diaspora?. Ararat Magazine. 29 August 2011. Armenian General Benevolent Union. 21 February 2015. 20 February 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150220204449/http://araratmagazine.org/2011/08/whats-happened-to-our-culture-in-the-diaspora/. dead.
  13. http://lorenz.ist.org/fba/document/manouchian.html Missak Manouchian – Ein armenischer Partisan
  14. Book: Cobb, Matthew. The Resistance: The French Fight Against the Nazis. 2009. Simon & Schuster. 978-1847391568. 187.
  15. Web site: San Diego Jewish Film Festival preview: 'Army of Crime'. Donald H.. Harrison. 11 January 2011.
  16. Web site: Charles Aznavour and his sister Aida received the Raoul Wallenberg Medal . The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation . 1 October 2018.
  17. News: Il y a 69 ans, Missak Manouchian était arrêté. Nor Haratch. 16 November 2014. fr. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20150222052827/http://nor-haratch.com/2014/11/anniversaire-il-y-a-69-ans-missak-manouchian-etait-arrete/. 22 February 2015.
  18. Book: Poznanski, Renée. Jews in France During World War II. 2001. University Press of New England. 0-87451-896-2. 352.
  19. Web site: (in Russian) Армянский боец французского Сопротивления . 29 May 2012 . 15 December 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071215183008/http://www.noev-kovcheg.ru/mag/2006-12/286.html . dead .
  20. Web site: Courtois. Stéphane. Stéphane Courtois. Portrait de Boris Holban. Le Monde. fr. 2 July 2004. la BS2 arrête Manouchian et plus de soixante de ses camarades, dont les 23 figurant sur la fameuse "Affiche rouge", qui seront fusillés au mont Valérien, le 21 février 1943..
  21. News: Dutent. Nicolas. Missak Manouchian : Cet idéal qui le faisait combattre. L'Humanité. 20 February 2015. fr.
  22. Web site: GOLDA (OLGA) BANCIC . https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/id-card/golda-olga-bancic . Holocaust Encyclopedia . US Holocaust Memorial Museum . 21 January 2022.
  23. News: Hugues. Bastien. Les derniers instants du groupe Manouchian. Le Figaro. 11 December 2009. fr.
  24. News: Samuel. Henry. First pictures of French Resistance killed by Nazi firing squad. https://web.archive.org/web/20121203052714/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/7841721/First-pictures-of-French-Resistance-killed-by-Nazi-firing-squad.html. dead. 3 December 2012. The Daily Telegraph. 20 June 2010.
  25. Web site: Dobbs. Michael. 6 July 1985. TV Show on French Resistance Stirs Controversy. 23 June 2021. WashingtonPost.com.
  26. Book: Al-Rustom, Hakem. Quayson. Ato. Ato Quayson. Daswani. Girish. A Companion to Diaspora and Transnationalism. Diaspora Activism and the Politics of Locality: The Armenians in France. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. 9781405188265. 476.
  27. Web site: Tardivier. Nelly. Arménie, mon amie est dédiée à une culture forte . culture.gouv.fr. French Ministry of Culture. 5. fr. July–August 2007. Les 500 000 Français d'origine arménienne représentent un ciment extraordinaire entre les deux pays, avec de hautes figures commecelles de Missak Manouchian..
  28. News: Autour de "Missak Manouchian, les Arméniens dans la Résistance en France". Nouvelles d'Arménie Magazine. 26 February 2007. fr. 22 February 2015. 16 June 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180616231325/http://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article=29774. dead.
  29. News: Missak Manouchian, les Arméniens dans la Résistance en France. Fondation de la Résistance. fr.
  30. News: President Hollande Attends Missak Manouchian Commemoration. Asbarez. 21 February 2014.
  31. Web site: Foreign Minister Edward Nalbandian participated in the commemoration ceremony dedicated to the French Resistance and the group of Missak Manouchian. mfa.am. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia. 21 February 2014. 23 February 2015. 17 June 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180617015224/http://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2014/02/21/france21022014/. dead.
  32. News: Gevorgyan. Alisa. Missak Manouchian Park opens in Yerevan. Public Radio of Armenia. 13 May 2014.
  33. News: Hollande, Sargsyan Attend Manouchian Park Opening. Hetq Online. 13 May 2014.
  34. Web site: Rue du Groupe Manouchian 75020 Paris. acam-france.org. Association Culturelle Arménienne de Marne-la-Vallée. fr.
  35. Web site: Dévoilement de la plaque Missak Manouchian. https://web.archive.org/web/20110721015341/http://www.mairie14.paris.fr/mairie14/jsp/site/Portal.jsp?document_id=13759&portlet_id=1931. dead. 21 July 2011. mairie14.paris.fr. Mairie du 14e. fr.
  36. News: Memorial plaque unveiled in Paris in honor of French Resistance hero Misak Manushyan. PanARMENIAN.Net. 23 February 2009.
  37. Web site: Buste Missak Manouchian Place Groupe Manouchian – 92130 Issy-les-Moulineaux. acam-france.org. Association Culturelle Arménienne de Marne-la-Vallée. fr.
  38. Web site: Statue of Missak Manouchian in Marseille desecreted . 2024-02-19 . Public Radio of Armenia . en-US.
  39. News: 2015-01-09 . Profanation de la stèle Manouchian : deux militants d'extrême droite condamnés . 2024-02-19 . Le Monde.fr . fr.
  40. Book: Shaginyan. Marietta. Marietta Shaginyan. Journey Through Soviet Armenia [По Советской Армении]. 1954. Foreign Languages Publishing House. Moscow. 45.
  41. Shervinsky. Sergei.

    ru:Шервинский, Сергей Васильевич

    . Борец, Рабочий, Поэт... [Fighter, Worker, Poet...]. Ogoniok. 3 June 1956. 16. Moscow. ru.
  42. Web site: The schools subordinated to the municipality of Yerevan. yerevan.am. Yerevan Municipality.
  43. News: Après Joséphine Baker, Missak Manouchian a sa place au Panthéon [After Josephine Baker, Missak Manouchian has his place in the Pantheon] ]. . 13 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221122200918/https://www.liberation.fr/idees-et-debats/tribunes/apres-josephine-baker-missak-manouchian-a-sa-place-au-pantheon-20220113_XVUSSRC45NGOJAOW5STFPLRIYE/ . 22 November 2022 . fr.
  44. News: Gallagher . Tim . Calls for Armenian resistance fighter to enter French Pantheon . Euronews (via AFP) . 25 April 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220516130902/https://www.euronews.com/culture/2022/04/25/armenian-genocide-anniversary-calls-for-armenian-resistance-fighter-to-enter-french-panthe . 16 May 2022.
  45. News: Gréco . Bertrand . Anne Hidalgo réclame la panthéonisation du résistant Missak Manouchian [Anne Hidalgo calls for the pantheonization of the resistant Missak Manouchian] ]. . 18 February 2023 . https://archive.today/20230223090212/https://www.lejdd.fr/culture/anne-hidalgo-reclame-la-pantheonisation-du-resistant-missak-manouchian-132763?Echobox=1676711381%23utm_term=Autofeed&xtor=CS1-4 . 23 February 2023.
  46. Web site: Hidalgo . Anne . Faire entrer Missak Manouchian au Panthéon : en voilà un beau et nécessaire projet pour la France ! [Bringing Missak Manouchian into the Pantheon: here is a beautiful and necessary project for France!] ]. . https://archive.today/20230222084010/https://twitter.com/Anne_Hidalgo/status/1628120599745765377 . 22 February 2023 . fr.
  47. Web site: Payan . Benoît . Benoît Payan . Missak Manouchian, était un héros de la résistance. . . https://archive.today/20230222073449/https://twitter.com/BenoitPayan/status/1627715326073765912 . 22 February 2023 . fr . February 20, 2023 . Nous sommes nombreux à le demander : la France serait grande de le faire entrer au Panthéon..
  48. Web site: Lacôte . Jonathan . Jonathan Lacôte . Petit fil pour une entrée de Missak Manouchian au Panthéon [Little thread for Missak Manouchian's entry to the Pantheon] ]. https://archive.today/20230222083837/https://twitter.com/JonathanLacote/status/1627930335714459649 . 22 February 2023 . fr . December 7, 2021.
  49. examples: Anne-Laurence Petel https://twitter.com/al_petel/status/1628127191111180288; Aurélien Saintoul https://twitter.com/A_Saintoul/status/1627987397097971714; Stéphane Troussel https://twitter.com/StephanTroussel/status/1627999808550993921; Martine Etienne https://twitter.com/MartineEtienne_/status/1628051827684941824; Pierre Ouzoulias https://twitter.com/OuzouliasP/status/1627955317702107137, https://twitter.com/OuzouliasP/status/1625132927225831424
  50. News: Serais . Jacques . Emmanuel Macron pense à panthéoniser Missak Manouchian [Emmanuel Macron thinks of pantheonizing Missak Manouchian] ]. . 23 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220413052710/https://www.europe1.fr/politique/info-e1-emmanuel-macron-pense-a-pantheoniser-missak-manouchian-4101117 . 13 April 2022 . fr.
  51. News: Biseau . Grégoire . Hopquin . Benoît . Missak et Mélinée Manouchian, un couple de résistants au Panthéon ? [Missak and Mélinée Manouchian, a couple of resistance fighters at the Panthéon?] ]. . 22 December 2022 . https://archive.today/20230226090342/https://www.lemonde.fr/m-le-mag/article/2022/12/22/missak-et-melinee-manouchian-un-couple-de-resistants-au-pantheon_6155347_4500055.html . 26 February 2023.
  52. News: En direct: au Panthéon, Emmanuel Macron salue la mémoire de Missak Manouchian, Français de préférence, Français d'espérance . 2024-02-21 . Le Monde.fr . fr-FR.
  53. Web site: 2024-02-21 . France inducts Resistance hero Manouchian into Panthéon . 2024-02-21 . France 24 . en.
  54. News: 2023-06-18 . Missak Manouchian, héros de la Résistance d'origine arménienne, va faire son entrée au Panthéon . fr . Le Monde.fr . 2023-06-19.
  55. Web site: 2024-02-21 . France honors foreign Resistance fighters as WWII hero Manouchian is inducted into the Panthéon . 2024-02-22 . AP News . en.
  56. Web site: The Red Poster, by Louis Aragon.
  57. News: Holden. Stephen. Stephen Holden. FILM REVIEW; Sorrow and Perfidy: Unsung Resistance Fighters. The New York Times. 10 January 2001.
  58. News: Holden. Stephen. Stephen Holden. The Army of Crime (2009). The New York Times. 19 August 2010.
  59. News: Kempner. Aviva. Vive La Resistance, Encore!. The Jewish Daily Forward. 18 August 2010.
  60. Web site: Mihai. MISSAK MANOUCHIAN, une esquisse de portrait. arte.tv. fr. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20150222002641/http://creative.arte.tv/en/community/missak-manouchian-une-esquisse-de-portrait. 22 February 2015.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Missak Manouchian".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.