Environmental movement in South Africa explained

The environmental movement in South Africa traces its history from the beginnings of conservation and preservation groups in the late 19th century, to the rise of radicalism amongst local ecologists and activists. The early environmental movement in South Africa was primarily made up of conservation groups whose membership was dominated by affluent whites.[1] Many of these groups advocated for forms of fortress conservation that were used to justify forcibly removing Black South Africans from their land. Throughout the mid to late 20th century, justice-centered environmental groups sprung up in connection with anti-apartheid movements advocating for change on issues that affected the environment as well as the rights of workers and rural peoples, showing how environmental issues in the country were "inextricably linked to issues of race and politics."[2]

Issues

Since the early days of the environmental movement, protection of wildlife and natural landscapes has been a major area of focus, however as the environmental movement has become more justice-focused, it has shifted from advocating for fortress conversation policies to endorsing community-based conservation strategies, which have been implemented in some areas with varying degrees of efficacy. Historically, many key environmental issues in the country were not explicitly framed as environmental issues by social movements, but rather as issues of "service delivery," which encompass the provision of housing, water, sanitation, and electricity services by national and municipal governments. Some environmental groups have addressed the intersections between the environment, urban living conditions, and occupational health and safety. Environmental movements in the country have also increasingly focused on combatting climate climate change and making decarbonization, sustainable development, and climate justice political priorities in the country.

Mining

Mining is one of the major industries in South Africa. The country is the world's largest producer of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite, and is the second largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium.[3] It is also the world's fifth largest coal exporter.[4] While Native South Africans had been mining gold and other minerals for centuries in the region, industrialized mining began in the late 19th century driven by colonial governments and companies.[5] These new mines employed a primarily Black workforce, shifting the Native population from relying on subsidence agriculture for their livelihoods to becoming dependent on wage labor. Working conditions in mines were dangerous with exposure to environmental hazards such as rock bursts and an extremely and hot poorly ventilated conditions. Tuberculosis was also able to spread easily among mine workers due to the poor ventilation. Asbestos mining caused severe lung damage to miners and surrounding communities. Sulfuric acid from mines also leads to pollution of surrounding groundwater, which for many communities is an important drinking water source.[6]

Energy supply

See also South African energy crisis

South Africa's energy supply crisis, or load shedding, is an ongoing period of widespread national blackouts of electricity supply. It began in the later months of 2007 towards the end of Thabo Mbeki's second term as president, and continues through the present. The South African government-owned national power utility and primary power generator, Eskom, and various parliamentarians attributed these rolling blackouts to insufficient generation capacity.[7]

The blackouts have had a wide range of impact on residents including limiting hospital services, increasing food insecurity and water scarcity, and increasing unemployment rates. The issue is connected to debates surrounding climate change and the country's transition to renewable energy since the majority of the nation's electricity currently comes from coal fire power plants. Bureaucratic delays and corruption have delayed the transition to renewables, worsening the power supply crisis.[8]

Water access

Inequitable water and sanitation access have long been issues in South Africa. Amid droughts exacerbated by climate change, the country currently faces a water crisis. The situation is especially dire for rural populations, 19% of whom lack consistent access to water and 33% of whom lack access to basic sanitation services.[9] Although the right to water is a guaranteed under the law, this often not the case on the ground. In 2000, water distribution was decentralized and is now controlled by municipal governments, which makes it more difficult for those outside larger municipalities to be connected to water infrastructure. This change did lead to a net increase in the number of people with access to water infrastructure, with the number increasing by 20.8 million between 1994 and 2020. However significant problems remain with the water system including broken or failing infrastructure, a lack of upkeep, and corruption in municipal governments. A notable example occurred in Mothutlung, a township in the North West Province, in 2013 when water tanks were brought in to deal with disruption of water supplies to households. Residents continually complained to local officials, but no action was taken, before they eventually discovered that municipal officials were deliberately delaying the repairs because they were shareholders in the water tank company being paid by the municipality. Protests ensued, and 4 protesters were killed by police.

Key environmental justice organizations

While the environmental movement in South Africa has long operated in decentralized manner, three environmental justice organizations: groundWork South Africa, Earthlife Africa, and the Coalition for Environmental Justice have served as important hubs for organizers and played a role in shaping the direction of the movement. Many environmental NGOs have had to compete with each other for funding, especially amid a scarcity in international funding, although in recent years there have been efforts among environmental organizations to pool their resources, financial and otherwise. The ideological gap has also begun to close between traditional environmental organizations and environmental justice organizations as a response to critiques that conservationist movements were too elitist and did not address issues of concern to the majority of the population.

Earthlife Africa

Earthlife Africa (ELA) is a South African environmental and anti-nuclear organisation founded in August 1988, in Johannesburg. Drawing inspiration from Greenpeace International, they sought to politicize conservation and connect it to other social inequalities. The group addressed environmental issues began by playing a radical, anti-apartheid, activist role. ELA is arguably now more of a reformist lobby or pressure group. As a key voice in the environmental justice movement, Earthlife Africa has been criticized for being too radical, and by others for "working with traditional conservation movements" in furthering the environmental struggle.

Coalition for Environmental Justice (formerly the Environmental Justice Networking Forum)

Born out of an ELA conference in 1992, the Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF) quickly became a prominent force in the environmental justice movement, taking on initiatives such as fighting against hazardous waste facilities in poor communities, While the EJNF had success mobilizing rural populations, especially during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the organization was criticized by some for ignoring the pressing environmental justice issues facing urban communities. In 2006, it reestablished as the Coalition for Environmental Justice.

groundWork South Africa

As South Africa's local affiliate of Friends of the Earth, groundWork South Africa was established in 1995 by three former EJNF members.[10] Their primary areas of focus are renewable energy and environmental health. They aim to address environmentalism through the lens of social equality and the creation of a more egalitarian society, focusing on addressing the needs of vulnerable populations. They both partner with local community organizations and conduct legislative advocacy.[11]

Environment + Politics

During apartheid, while political parties were banned, environmental groups served as an outlet for activism and political expression. After the end of apartheid, many radical environmentalists were absorbed into the governing African National Congress (ANC), while some chose to continue pursuing activism or advocacy through non-governmental organizations. During Nelson Mandela's presidency (1994-1999) there were higher levels of cooperation between environmental non-governmental organizations and national government, but during the Thabo Mbeki presidency (1999-2008) tensions arose between environmental groups and the ANC. Mbeki favored non-governmental organizations that focused on delivering direct aid to struggling populations, whereas environmental movements were focused on pursuing social and political change. Lack of transparency and public participation in government decision making remain a source of conflict between environmental organizations and political officials.

Green parties

Unlike many Global North countries which saw large movements for the establishment of green parties beginning in the 1970s, the movement to establish a green party in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s never reached mainstream success. Several green parties were started in the country during that period, although none became influential in national politics. In 1989, the Ecology Party, the country's first green party was established, but it disbanded shortly thereafter.[12] In 1992, activists in Capetown launched the Green Party, but it too disbanded after a disastrous election campaign in 1994. Judy Sole, a nature resort developer, then founded the Government of the People Green Party in 1999.[13] ECOPEACE, a socialist environmentalist party founded in 1995 won a seat on the eThekwini Municipal Council in 2000, and its sister organization, Operation Khanyisa Movement (OKM) won a seat on the Johannesburg City Council in 2006.[14]

National legislation

See South African Environmental Law

South Africa's Constitution, ratified in 1996, enshrines the right to a safe and healthy environment, and the right of future generations to have a protected environment though conservation and the curbing of pollution. It also committed to more equitable distribution of land.[15]

Two pieces of landmark environmental legislation, the Environmental Management Act and the National Water Act, both passed in 1998. The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), which passed in 1994 promised increased service delivery that would meet the needs of all people. However, in a few short years, the RDP would be replaced with Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) which was more focused on economic growth than addressing social issues.

International agreements

In 2002, South Africa hosted the Rio+10 World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg, the main outcome of which was the Johannesburg declaration. In the lead up to the event, there was conflict among environmental organizations about whether hosting the summit was a valuable endeavor or whether it was a distraction from pressing domestic environmental policy concerns.

Timeline

Colonial Era

Apartheid Era

Post-Apartheid Era

See also

Notes and References

  1. Khan, Farieda. 2001: 'Towards Environmentalism: A Socio-political Evaluation of Trends in South African Conservation History, 1910-1976, with a specific focus on the Role of Black Conservation Organisations'. PhD Thesis, University of Cape Town.
  2. Khan, Farieda. 2014: 'Race, Politics, and the Environment in South Africa- Trends in the History of Environmental Civil Society Organisations'. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Farieda-Khan/publication/316240934_Race_Politics_and_the_Environment_in_South_Africa_-_Trends_in_the_History_of_Environmental_Civil_Society_Organisations/links/58f73a17a6fdcc187f3bd741/Race-Politics-and-the-Environment-in-South-Africa-Trends-in-the-History-of-Environmental-Civil-Society-Organisations
  3. Mineral commodity summaries 2024 . Survey . U. S. Geological . 2024 . U.S. Geological Survey . 2024 . en.
  4. Web site: August 2021 . COAL IN SOUTH AFRICA . Eskom.
  5. "Benchmarks: October 11, 1899: Second Boer War begins, fueled by discovery of gold". EARTH Magazine. 7 September 2018.
  6. Knight . Jasper . 2023-09-02 . Environment, Power, and Justice: Southern African Histories, edited by Graeme Wynn, Jane Carruthers and Nancy J. Jacobs, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2022, xii + 354 pp. Canadian Journal of African Studies . 57 . 3 . 767–768 . 10.1080/00083968.2023.2250136 . 0008-3968.
  7. Rathi, Anusha (8 July 2022). "Why South Africa Is in the Dark, Again". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  8. Web site: Will South Africa's Power Crisis Sink Its Green Ambitions? . 2024-05-04 . Council on Foreign Relations . en.
  9. Web site: Water Crisis In South Africa . 2024-05-04 . Greenpeace Africa . en.
  10. Peek . Bobby . May 2019 . groundWork Environmental Justice Action Climate Change Letter to South African President Cyril Ramaphosa, December 2018 . New Solutions . en . 29 . 1 . 112–115 . 10.1177/1048291119835446 . 30866725 . 2019NewSo..29..112P . 1048-2911.
  11. Web site: About Us . 2024-05-05 . groundWork . en-US.
  12. Kotzé, Hendrik Jakobus; Anneke Greyling (1994). Political organizations in South Africa A-Z (2 ed.). Tafelberg. .
  13. Web site: Sawyer . Clive . May 19, 1999 . South Africa: Small challengers with big ideas . Cape Argus.
  14. "IEC (Electoral Commission of South Africa)". Elections.org.za.
  15. Web site: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa South African Government . 2024-05-04 . www.gov.za.
  16. Web site: History South African Government . 2024-05-01 . www.gov.za.
  17. Pincetl . Stephanie S. . October 1991 . The Global Environmental Movement: Reclaiming paradise . Political Geography Quarterly . 10 . 4 . 438–439 . 10.1016/0260-9827(91)90008-i .
  18. Book: Pringle, John A. . The Conservationists and the Killers: The Story of Game Protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa . T.V. Bulpin & Books of Africa . 1982 . 9780949956231 . Cape Town .
  19. Rewriting South Africa's Conservation History-The Role of the Native Farmers Association . 2636969 . Khan . Farieda . Journal of Southern African Studies . 1994 . 20 . 4 . 499–516 . 10.1080/03057079408708417 .
  20. Stull . Valerie . Bell . Michael M. . Ncwadi . Mpumelelo . 2016-10-01 . Environmental apartheid: Eco-health and rural marginalization in South Africa . Journal of Rural Studies . 47 . 369–380 . 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.04.004 . 2016JRurS..47..369S . 0743-0167.
  21. Web site: South Africa Department of Education . 2005 . History of the Freedom Charter . Department of Environmental Affairs.
  22. Web site: 2011-05-18 . About KAA . 2024-04-30 . KOEBERG ALERT ALLIANCE . en.
  23. Web site: Dolphin Action and Protection Group . 30 April 2024 . 30 April 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240430020902/https://environmental-watch.com/profiles/dolphin-action-protection-group/ . dead .
  24. Fynbos Fynmense: people making biodiversity work (12.4 MB) 2006. A. Ashwell, T. Sandwith, M. Barnett, A. Parker & F. Wisani. ISBN 1-919976-29-9. 187. https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/c.a.p.e.report.chapter6.pages185-206.pdf
  25. Web site: Environmental Justice Case Study: Thor Chemicals and Mercury Exposure in.
  26. Lewis, D R, "Environment and Economics go together?", South Environment, Sept 19-25, 1991, p20
  27. Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Back: Ideology & Urban Ecology in South Africa . 4006360 . McDonald . David A. . Review of African Political Economy . 1998 . 25 . 75 . 73–88 . 10.1080/03056249808704293 . 10.1080/03056249808704293 . free .
  28. Cock, Jacklyn (2004) "Connecting the red, brown and green: The environmental justice movement in South Africa" (PDF). Centre for Civil Society, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
  29. Web site: Environmental Rights [1995] ZAConAsmRes 208 (23 January 1995) ]. 2024-04-30 . www.saflii.org.
  30. Web site: The SA Constitution . 2024-04-30 . www.justice.gov.za.
  31. Web site: About Us . 2024-05-01 . groundWork . en-US.
  32. Web site: 2009-04-08 . Short Review of the COP-15 Conference in Copenhagen - LAS-ANS . 2024-04-30 . pt-BR.
  33. South African International Energy Conference, Conference Report. 2015 . https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SAIREC_Report_Final.pdf
  34. Garland, Rebecca, South African court rules that clean air is a constitutional right https://theconversation.com/south-african-court-rules-that-clean-air-is-a-constitutional-right-what-needs-to-change-179706
  35. Vlavianos, Chris, Communities celebrate as Court sets aside Shell's exploration right off the Wild Coast of South Africahttps://www.greenpeace.org/africa/en/press/52171/press-release-communities-celebrate-as-court-sets-aside-shells-exploration-right-off-the-wild-coast-of-south-africa/