pronounced as /notice/The Great Vowel Shift was a series of changes in the pronunciation of the English language that took place primarily between 1400 and 1700, beginning in southern England and today having influenced effectively all dialects of English. Through this vowel shift, the pronunciation of all Middle English long vowels were changed. Some consonant sounds also changed, particularly those that became silent; the term Great Vowel Shift is sometimes used to include these consonantal changes.[1] [2]
The standardization of English spelling began in the 15th and 16th centuries; the Great Vowel Shift is the major reason English spellings now often deviate considerably from how they represent pronunciations.[3] The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term.[4]
The causes of the Great Vowel Shift are unknown[5] and have been a source of intense scholarly debate; as yet, there is no firm consensus. The greatest changes occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries, and their origins are at least partly phonetic.
The main difference between the pronunciation of Middle English in the year 1400 and Modern English (Received Pronunciation) is in the value of the long vowels.
Long vowels in Middle English had "continental" values, much like those in Italian and Standard German; in standard Modern English, they have entirely different pronunciations. The differing pronunciations of English vowel letters do not stem from the Great Shift as such but rather because English spelling did not adapt to the changes.
German had undergone vowel changes quite similar to the Great Shift slightly earlier. Still, the spelling was changed accordingly (e.g., Middle High German German, Middle High (ca.1050-1500);: bīzen → modern German German: beißen "to bite").
| Word | Vowel pronunciation | |
|---|---|---|
| Late Middle English before the GVS | Modern English after the GVS | |
| bite | [iː] | [aɪ] |
| meet | [eː] | [iː] |
| meat | [ɛː] | |
| serene | ||
| mate | [aː] | [eɪ] |
| out | [uː] | [aʊ] |
| boot | [oː] | [uː] |
| boat | [ɔː] | [oʊ] |
| stone | ||
| Word | Diphthong pronunciation | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Late Middle English before the GVS | Modern English after the GVS | ||
| day | [æɪ] | [eɪ] | |
| they | |||
| boy | [ɔɪ] | [ɔɪ] | |
| point | [ʊɪ] | ||
| law | [ɑʊ] | [ɔː] | |
| knew | [eʊ] | [juː] | |
| dew | [ɛʊ] | ||
| know | [ɔʊ] | [oʊ] | |
This timeline uses representative words to show the main vowel changes between late Middle English in the year 1400 and Received Pronunciation in the mid-20th century. The Great Vowel Shift occurred in the lower half of the table, between 1400 and 1600–1700.
The changes after 1700 are not considered part of the Great Vowel Shift. Pronunciation is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet:[11]
Before the Great Vowel Shift, Middle English in Southern England had seven long vowels, pronounced as //iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː//. The vowels occurred in, for example, the words mite, meet, meat, mate, boat, boot, and bout, respectively.
| close | pronounced as //iː// mite | pronounced as //uː// bout | |
|---|---|---|---|
| close-mid | pronounced as //eː// meet | pronounced as //oː// boot | |
| open-mid | pronounced as //ɛː// meat | pronounced as //ɔː// boat | |
| open | pronounced as //aː// mate | — |
The words had very different pronunciations in Middle English from those in Modern English:
In addition, Middle English had:
After around 1300, the long vowels of Middle English began changing in pronunciation as follows:
These changes occurred over several centuries and can be divided into two phases. The first phase affected the close vowels pronounced as //iː uː// and the close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː oː//: pronounced as //eː oː// were raised to pronounced as //iː uː//, and pronounced as //iː uː// became the diphthongs pronounced as //ei ou// or pronounced as //əi əu//. The second phase affected the open vowel pronounced as //aː// and the open-mid vowels pronounced as //ɛː ɔː//: pronounced as //aː ɛː ɔː// were raised, in most cases changing to pronounced as //eː iː oː//.
The Great Vowel Shift changed vowels without merger, so Middle English before the vowel shift had the same number of vowel phonemes as Early Modern English after the vowel shift.
After the Great Vowel Shift, some vowel phonemes began merging. Immediately after the Great Vowel Shift, the vowels of meet and meat were different, but they are merged in Modern English, and both words are pronounced as pronounced as //miːt//.
However, during the 16th and the 17th centuries, there were many different mergers, and some mergers can be seen in individual Modern English words like great, which is pronounced with the vowel pronounced as //eɪ// as in mate rather than the vowel pronounced as //iː// as in meat.
This is a simplified picture of the changes that happened between late Middle English (late ME), Early Modern English (EModE), and today's English (ModE). Pronunciations in 1400, 1500, 1600, and 1900 are shown. To hear recordings of the sounds, click the phonetic symbols.
| Word | Vowel pronunciation | Sound file | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| late ME | EModE | ModE | ||||
| 1400 | 1500 | 1600 | by 1900 | |||
| bite | pronounced as //ei// | pronounced as //ɛi// | ||||
| out | pronounced as //ou// | pronounced as //ɔu// | ||||
| meet | ||||||
| boot | ||||||
| meat | ||||||
| boat | ||||||
| mate | pronounced as //æː// | |||||
Before labial consonants and also after,[12] pronounced as //uː// did not shift, and pronounced as //uː// remains as in soup.
The first phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː oː//, as in beet and boot, and the close vowels pronounced as //iː uː//, as in bite and out. The close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː oː// became close pronounced as //iː uː//, and the close vowels pronounced as //iː uː// became diphthongs. The first phase was completed in 1500, meaning that by that time, words like beet and boot had lost their Middle English pronunciation and were pronounced with the same vowels as in Modern English. The words bite and out were pronounced with diphthongs, but not the same diphthongs as in Modern English.
| Vowel pronunciation | |||
| 1400 | 1550 | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| bite | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ɛi// | |
| meet | pronounced as //eː// | pronounced as //iː// | |
| out | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //ɔu// | |
| boot | pronounced as //oː// | pronounced as //uː// |
Scholars agree that the Middle English close vowels pronounced as //iː uː// became diphthongs around 1500, but disagree about what diphthongs they changed to. According to Lass, the words bite and out after diphthongisation were pronounced as pronounced as //beit// and pronounced as //out//, similar to American English bait pronounced as //beɪt// and oat pronounced as //oʊt//. Later, the diphthongs pronounced as //ei ou// shifted to pronounced as //ɛi ɔu//, then pronounced as //əi əu//, and finally to Modern English pronounced as //aɪ aʊ//. This sequence of events is supported by the testimony of orthoepists before Hodges in 1644.
However, many scholars such as,, and argue for theoretical reasons that, contrary to what 16th-century witnesses report, the vowels pronounced as //iː uː// were immediately centralised and lowered to pronounced as //əi əu//.
Evidence from Northern English and Scots (see below) suggests that the close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː oː// were the first to shift. As the Middle English vowels pronounced as //eː oː// were raised towards pronounced as //iː uː//, they forced the original Middle English pronounced as //iː uː// out of place and caused them to become diphthongs pronounced as //ei ou//. This type of sound change, in which one vowel's pronunciation shifts so that it is pronounced like a second vowel, and the second vowel is forced to change its pronunciation, is called a push chain.
However, according to professor Jürgen Handke, for some time, there was a phonetic split between words with the vowel pronounced as //iː// and the diphthong pronounced as //əi//, in words where the Middle English pronounced as //iː// shifted to the Modern English pronounced as //aɪ//. For an example, high was pronounced with the vowel pronounced as //iː//, and like and my were pronounced with the diphthong pronounced as //əi//.[13] Therefore, for logical reasons, the close vowels pronounced as //iː uː// could have diphthongised before the close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː oː// raised. Otherwise, high would probably rhyme with thee rather than my. This type of chain is called a drag chain.
The second phase of the Great Vowel Shift affected the Middle English open vowel pronounced as //aː//, as in mate, and the Middle English open-mid vowels pronounced as //ɛː ɔː//, as in meat and boat. Around 1550, Middle English pronounced as //aː// was raised to pronounced as //æː//. Then, after 1600, the new pronounced as //æː// was raised to pronounced as //ɛː//, with the Middle English open-mid vowels pronounced as //ɛː ɔː// raised to close-mid pronounced as //eː oː//.
| Vowel pronunciation | ||||
| 1400 | 1550 | 1640 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| meat | pronounced as //ɛː// | pronounced as //ɛː// | pronounced as //eː// | |
| mate | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //aː//, pronounced as //æː// | pronounced as //ɛː// | |
| boat | pronounced as //ɔː// | pronounced as //ɔː// | pronounced as //oː// |
During the first and the second phases of the Great Vowel Shift, long vowels were shifted without merging with other vowels, but after the second phase, several vowels merged. The later changes also involved the Middle English diphthong pronounced as //ɛj//, as in day, which often (but not always, see the pane-pain merger) monophthongised to pronounced as //ɛː//, and merged with Middle English pronounced as //aː// as in mate or pronounced as //ɛː// as in meat.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, several different pronunciation variants existed among different parts of the population for words like meet, meat, mate, and day. Different pairs or trios of words were merged in pronunciation in each pronunciation variant. Four different pronunciation variants are shown in the table below. The fourth pronunciation variant gave rise to Modern English pronunciation. In Modern English, meet and meat are merged in pronunciation and both have the vowel pronounced as //iː//, and mate and day are merged with the diphthong pronounced as //eɪ//, which developed from the 16th-century long vowel pronounced as //eː//.
| Middle English ! | 1500s pronunciation variants | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||
| meet | pronounced as //eː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //iː// |
| meat | pronounced as //ɛː// | pronounced as //ɛː// | pronounced as //eː// | pronounced as //eː// | |
| day | pronounced as //ɛj// | pronounced as //ɛː// | pronounced as //eː// | ||
| mate | pronounced as //aː// | pronounced as //æː// | |||
Modern English typically has the meet–meat merger: both meet and meat are pronounced with the vowel pronounced as //iː//. Words like great and steak, however, have merged with mate and are pronounced with the vowel pronounced as //eɪ//, which developed from the pronounced as //eː// shown in the table above. Before historic pronounced as //r// some of these vowels merged with pronounced as //ə//, pronounced as //ɛ//, pronounced as //ɪ//, pronounced as //ʊ//
The Great Vowel Shift affected other dialects and the standard English of southern England but in different ways. In Northern England, the shift did not operate on the long back vowels because they had undergone an earlier shift.[14] Similarly, the dialect in Scotland had a different vowel system before the Great Vowel Shift, as pronounced as //oː// had shifted to pronounced as //øː// in Early Scots. In the Scots equivalent of the Great Vowel Shift, the long vowels pronounced as //iː//, pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //aː// shifted to pronounced as //ei//, pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //eː// by the Middle Scots period and pronounced as //uː// remained unaffected.
The first step in the Great Vowel Shift in Northern and Southern English is shown in the table below. The Northern English developments of Middle English pronounced as //iː, eː// and pronounced as //oː, uː// were different from Southern English. In particular, the Northern English vowels pronounced as //iː// in bite, pronounced as //eː// in feet, and pronounced as //oː// in boot shifted, while the vowel pronounced as //uː// in house did not. These developments below fall under the label "older" to refer to Scots and a more conservative and increasingly rural Northern sound, while "younger" refers to a more mainstream Northern sound largely emerging just since the twentieth century.
| Word | Vowel | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Middle English | Modern English | ||||
| bite | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ɛj// | pronounced as //aj// | pronounced as //ɑj// | |
| feet | pronounced as //eː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //ɪj// | |
| house | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //uː// | pronounced as //ɐw/~/aw// | pronounced as //aw// | |
| boot | pronounced as //oː// | pronounced as //iː// | pronounced as //yː/~/uː// | pronounced as //ʉw// | |
The vowel systems of Northern and Southern Middle English immediately before the Great Vowel Shift were different in one way. In Northern Middle English, the back close-mid vowel pronounced as //oː// in boot had already shifted to front pronounced as //øː// (a sound change known as fronting), like the long German: ö in German pronounced as /de/ "hear". Thus, Southern English had a back close-mid vowel pronounced as //oː//, but Northern English did not:
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In Southern English, the close vowels pronounced as //iː// in bite and pronounced as //uː// in house shifted to become diphthongs, but in Northern English, pronounced as //iː// in bite shifted but pronounced as //uː// in house did not.
If the vowel systems at the time of the Great Vowel Shift caused the difference between the Northern and Southern vowel shifts, pronounced as //uː// did not shift because there was no back mid vowel pronounced as //oː// in Northern English. In Southern English, shifting of pronounced as //oː// to pronounced as //uː// could have caused diphthongisation of original pronounced as //uː//, but because Northern English had no back close-mid vowel pronounced as //oː// to shift, the back close vowel pronounced as //uː// did not diphthongise.