Genocides in history (World War I through World War II) explained

First half of the 20th century (World War I through World War II)

In 1915, during World War I, the concept of crimes against humanity was introduced into international relations for the first time when the Allied Powers sent a letter to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of the Central Powers, protesting massacres that were taking place within the Empire.[1]

Ottoman Empire

See main article: Late Ottoman genocides, Assyrian genocide, Greek genocide, Great Famine of Mount Lebanon and Dersim Massacre.

On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) jointly issued a statement which for the first time ever explicitly charged a government, the Ottoman Empire, with committing a "crime against humanity" in reference to that regime's persecution of its Christian minorities, including Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks.[2] Many researchers consider these events a single genocide rather than separate genocides, based on their belief that all of these genocides were part of the planned ethnoreligious purification of the Turkish state, a policy which was implemented and advanced by the Young Turks.[3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres."

Armenians

The Armenian genocide (translit.: Armenian: Hayots' Ts'eġaspanout'youn;) refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire which occurred both during and just after World War I. It was implemented through extensive massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions which were designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.

The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople. Thereafter, the Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes and forced them to march hundreds of miles, without food or water, to the desert of what is now Syria. The Armenians were massacred regardless of their age or gender, with rape and other acts of sexual abuse being commonplace.[8] The majority of Armenian diaspora communities were founded as a result of these events. Mass killings continued to be committed by the Republic of Turkey during the Turkish–Armenian War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.

Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923 and since then, it has denied the fact that a genocide occurred. In recent years, it has resisted calls to acknowledge the crime by scholars, countries and international organizations.

Assyrians

The Assyrian genocide (also known as the Sayfo or the Seyfo; Aramaic: ܩܛܠܐ ܕܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ or ܣܝܦܐ, Turkish: Süryani Soykırımı) was committed against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War by the Young Turks.[9] The Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia (Tur Abdin, Hakkari, Van, Siirt region in modern-day southeastern Turkey and Urmia region in northwestern Iran) was forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish and allied Kurdish) forces between 1914 and 1920.[10] This genocide paralleled the Armenian genocide and Greek genocide. The Assyro-Chaldean National Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about 750,000 Assyrians were murdered between 1914 and 1918.[11]

Greeks

The Greek genocide refers to the fate of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire both during and after World War I (1914–18). Like the Armenians and the Assyrians, the Greeks were also subjected to massacres, expulsions, death marches and various other forms of persecution by the Young Turks.[12] The mass killing of Greeks continued to occur under the rule of the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War phase of the Turkish War of Independence.[13] George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, among other diplomats, documented the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the post-Armistice period. Estimates of the number of Anatolian Greeks who were killed range from 348,000 to 900,000.[14] [15] [16]

Bulgarians

See main article: article and Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913.

Mount Lebanon

See main article: Great Famine of Mount Lebanon.

Yazidis

During the Armenian genocide, many Yazidis were killed by Hamidiye cavalry.[17] According to Aziz Tamoyan, as many as 300,000 Yazidis were killed with the Armenians, while others fled to Transcaucasia.[18]

Kurds

See also: Deportations of Kurds (1916–1934), Kurds in Turkey and Kurdish–Turkish conflict. Concurrent to the Late Ottoman genocides most sources suggest that as many as 700,000 Kurds were deported during World War I, although there are no reliable statistics.[19] Safrastian (1945) estimates that half of these deported Kurds died. Uğur Ümit Üngör writes that "it would require a separate study to calculate meticulously how many were deported".

A few decades later deportations continued. The Dersim massacre for example refers to the depopulation of Dersim in Turkish Kurdistan, in 1937–38, in which approximately 13,000–40,000 Alevi Kurds[20] [21] were killed and thousands more of them were driven into exile. A key component of the Turkification process was a policy of massive population resettlement. The main document, the 1934 Law on Resettlement, was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.

Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events which took place in Dersim a genocide. A prominent proponent of this view is İsmail Beşikçi. Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression. A Turkish court ruled in 2011 that the events could not be considered genocide because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.[22] Scholars such as Martin van Bruinessen, have instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local language and identity.

Kingdom of Iraq

See main article: Simele massacre. The Simele massacre (Syriac: '''ܦܪܡܬܐ ܕܣܡܠܐ''', Arabic: مذبحة سميل) was a massacre committed by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Iraq during a campaign which systematically targeted the Assyrians of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term is not only used in reference to the massacre which occurred in Simele, it is also used in reference to the killing spree which occurred in 63 Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts and caused the death of between 5,000 and 6,000[23] [24] Assyrians.

The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to invent the concept of genocide.[25] In 1933, Lemkin delivered a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law. The concept of the "crime of barbarity" evolved into the idea of genocide, and it was based on the Simele massacre, Armenian genocide, and later the Holocaust.[26]

Fascist Italy

Libya

See also: Italian concentration camps in Libya. The Pacification of Libya,[27] also known as the Libyan Genocide[28] [29] [30] [31] or the Second Italo-Senussi War,[32] was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,[33] [34] when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.[35] The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's entire population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.[28] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, the refusal to take prisoners of war and the execution rather than the capture of surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians. Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.[36] In 2008, Italy apologized for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and it went on to say that its apology was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."[37]

Ethiopia

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Italian Invasion (Amharic: ጣልያን ወረራ), and in Italy as the Ethiopian War (Italian: Guerra d'Etiopia). It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the Axis powers and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations before the outbreak of the Second World War. By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, which have been described by some historians as constituting genocide.[38]

Russia and the Soviet Union

See also: Human rights in the Soviet Union and Soviet war crimes.

Kyrgyz

See main article: Urkun. In 1916 in the territory which is currently named Urkun, Kyrgyzstan launched an uprising against Tsarist Russia. A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 in which 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis were killed a genocide, though Russia rejected this characterization.[39] Russian sources put the death toll at 3,000.[40]

Pogroms against Jews

See main article: Pogroms during the Russian Civil War, Antisemitism in the Russian Empire, Pogroms in the Russian Empire, Antisemitism in Russia, Antisemitism in the Soviet Union, History of the Jews in Russia and History of the Jews in the Soviet Union. The Whitaker Report of the United Nations cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 pogroms which occurred during the White Terror in Russia as an act of genocide.[41] During the Russian Civil War, between 1918 and 1921, a total of 1,236 pogroms were committed against Jews in 524 towns in Ukraine. Estimates of the number of Jews who were killed in these pogroms range from 30,000 to 60,000.[42] [43] Of the recorded 1,236 pogroms and excesses, 493 of them were carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers who were under the command of Symon Petliura, 307 of them were carried out by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 of them were carried out by Denikin's army, 106 of them were carried out by the Red Army and 32 of them were carried out by the Polish Army.[44]

Decossackization

See main article: Decossackization. During the Russian Civil War the Bolsheviks engaged in a genocidal campaign against the Don Cossacks. University of York Russian specialist Shane O'Rourke states that "ten thousand Cossacks were systematically slaughtered in a few weeks in January 1919" and he also states that this mass-slaughter "was one of the main factors which led to the disappearance of the Cossacks as a nation."[45] The late Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, head of the Presidential Committee for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repression, notes that "hundreds of thousands of Cossacks were killed".[46] Historian Robert Gellately claims that "the most reliable estimates indicate that between 300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919–20" out of a population of around three million.[47]

Peter Holquist states that the overall number of executions which were carried out is difficult to establish. In some regions hundreds were executed. In Khoper, the tribunal was very active, with a one-month total of 226 executions. The Tsymlianskaia tribunal oversaw the execution of over 700 people. The Kotel'nikovo tribunal executed 117 in early May and nearly 1,000 were executed overall. Others were not quite as active. The Berezovskaia tribunal made a total of twenty arrests in a community of 13,500 people. Holquist also notes that some of the White reports of Red atrocities in the Don were consciously scripted for agitation purposes.[48] In one example, an insurgent leader reported that 140 were executed in Bokovskaia, but later provided a different account, according to which only eight people in Bokovskaia were sentenced to death, and the authorities did not manage to carry these sentences out. This same historian emphasises he is "not seeking to downplay or dismiss very real executions by the Soviets".[49]

Research by Pavel Polian from the Russian Academy of Sciences on the subject of forced migrations in Russia shows that more than 45,000 Cossacks were deported from the Terek province to Ukraine. Their land was distributed among pro-soviet Cossacks and Chechens.[50]

Joseph Stalin

See main article: History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953), Human rights in the Soviet Union, Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union, Great Purge, Gulag and Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death occurred in the Soviet Union when it was under the rule of Joseph Stalin. The causes of these unnatural mass deaths include Union-wide famines in the early 1920s and early 1930s and deportations of ethnic minorities. Stalin due to factional struggles with Bukharin wing of the party, peasant resistance to the NEP under Lenin, and the need for industrialization declared a need to extract a "tribute" or "tax" from the peasantry.[51] This idea was supported by most of the party in the 1920s.[51] The tribute collected by the party took on the form of a virtual war against the peasantry that would lead to its cultural destruction and the relegating of the countryside to essentially a colony homogenized to the urban culture of the Soviet elite.[51] This campaign of "colonizing" the peasantry had its roots both in old Russian Imperialism and modern social engineering of the nation state yet with key differences to the latter such as Soviet repression reflecting more the weakness of said state rather than its strength.[51] There have also been more selective discussions of collectivization as a project of colonialism in regard to Ukraine[52] [53] [54] [55] and Kazakhstan.[56] On 26 April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman Boris Yeltsin, passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and genocide."[57]

Holodomor

See main article: Holodomor.

See also: Kazakh famine of 1930–1933 and Soviet famine of 1930–1933. During the Soviet famine of 1930–1933, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and some densely populated regions of Russia were all affected, but the highest number of deaths occurred in Ukraine. The events which occurred there are referred to as the Holodomor and they are recognized as a genocide by the governments of Australia, Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, Canada, Lithuania, Poland, the US, Hungary and Portugal. The famine was caused by a variety of factors with different explanations depending on the scholar. According to Simon Payaslian, the scholarly consensus classifies the Soviet famine (at least the famine in Ukraine) as a genocide,[58] but some scholars say that it remains a significant issue in modern politics and they do not believe that Soviet policies would fall under the legal definition of genocide.[59] [60] Several scholars have disputed the belief that the famine was a genocidal act which was committed by the Soviet government, including J. Arch Getty,[61] Stephen G. Wheatcroft, R. W. Davies,[62] and Mark Tauger.[63] Getty says that the "overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives ... is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan."[61] Wheatcroft says that the Soviet government's policies during the famine were criminal acts of fraud and manslaughter, though not outright murder or genocide.[64] While Wheatcroft rejects the genocide characterization of the famine, he states that "the grain collection campaign was associated with the reversal of the previous policy of Ukrainisation."[65]

A 2020 Journal of Genocide Research article by Oleh Wolowyna estimated 8.7 million deaths across the entire Soviet Union including 3.9 million in Ukraine, 3.3 million in Russia, and 1.3 million in Kazakhstan, plus a lower number of dead in other republics. According to the All-Union census of 1926–1937, the rural population in the North Caucasus decreased by 24%. In the Kuban alone, from November 1932 to the spring of 1933, the number of documented victims of famine was 62,000. According to other historians, the real death toll is many times higher.[66] For example, one paper estimates over 14% of the Krasnodar Oblast which roughly includes the Kuban perished due to the famine. The self-identification of the Ukrainian population of Kuban decreased from 915,000 in 1926, to 150,000 in 1939.[67]

According to some scholars, collectivization in the Soviet Union and the lack of favored industries were the primary contributors to famine mortality (52% of excess deaths), and some evidence shows that ethnic Ukrainians and Germans were discriminated against.[68] Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Professor of History at Michigan State University, states that Ukraine was hit particularly hard by grain quotas which were set at levels which most farms could not produce. The 1933 harvest was poor, coupled with the extremely high quota level, which led to starvation conditions. The shortages were blamed on kulak sabotage, and authorities distributed what supplies were available only in the urban areas. According to a Centre for Economic Policy Research paper published in 2021 by Andrei Markevich, Natalya Naumenko, and Nancy Qian, regions with higher Ukrainian population shares were struck harder with centrally planned policies corresponding to famine, and Ukrainian populated areas were given lower amounts of tractors which were correlated to a reduction in famine mortality, ultimately concluding that 92% of famine deaths in Ukraine along with 77% of famine deaths in parts of Russia and Belarus can be explained by the fact that there was systematic bias against Ukrainians.[69] The collectivization and high procurement quota explanation for the famine is somewhat called into question by the fact that the oblasts of Ukraine with the highest losses being Kyiv and Kharkiv which produced far lower amounts of grain than other sections of the country. Oleh Wolowyna comments that peasant resistance and the ensuing repression of said resistance was a critical factor for the famine in Ukraine and parts of Russia populated by national minorities like Germans and Ukrainians allegedly tainted by "fascism and bourgeois nationalism" according to Soviet authorities.[70]

Ukraine's Yuschenko administration recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide and it pressured international governments to do the same.[71] This move was opposed by the Russian government and some members of the Ukrainian parliament, especially the Communists. A Ukrainian court found Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Genrikh Yagoda, Yakov Yakovlev, Stanislav Kosior, Pavel Postyshev, Vlas Chubar and Mendel Khatayevich posthumously guilty of genocide on 13 January 2010.[72] As of 2010, the Russian government's official position was that the famine took place, but it was not an ethnic genocide;[71] former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych supported this position.[73] A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyiv's Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of "genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932–33 through the artificial creation of living conditions intended for its partial physical destruction."[74]

Kazakhstan

Some historians and scholars consider the Kazakh famine of 1932–33 to have been a genocide of Kazakhs.[75] The Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the class was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan.[76] [77] Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country.[78] Regarding the Kazakh catastrophe, Michael Ellman states that it "seems to be an example of 'negligent genocide' which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention".[79] However, historian Robert Kindler refuses to call the famine a genocide, claiming that doing so masks the culpability of lower-level cadres who were locally rooted among the Kazakhs themselves.[80] Historian Sarah Cameron argues that while Stalin did not intend to starve Kazakhs, he did see some deaths as a necessary sacrifice to achieve the political and economic goals of the regime.[81] However, Sarah Cameron believes that while the famine combined with a campaign against nomads was not genocide in the sense of the UN definition, it does comply with Raphael Lemkin's original concept of genocide, which considered destruction of culture to be as genocidal as physical annihilation.[82] Historian Stephen Wheatcroft criticizes this view because he believed that the high expectations of central planners were sufficient to demonstrate their ignorance of the ultimate consequences of their actions.[82] Wheatcroft views the state's policies during the famine as criminal acts, though not as intentional murder or genocide.[82] Niccolò Pianciola argues that from Raphael Lemkin's point of view on genocide, all nomads of the Soviet Union were victims of the crime, not just the Kazakhs.[83] A monument for the famine's victims was constructed in 2017.[84] The Turkic Council has described the famine as a "criminal Stalinist ethnic policy".[85] A genocide remembrance day is commenced on 31 May for the victims of the famine.

Poles in the Soviet Union

See main article: The Polish Operation of the NKVD (1937–1938), Soviet invasion of Poland and Katyn massacre. Several scholars write that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles in the Soviet Union from 1937 to 1938 was genocide. An NKVD official remarked that Poles living in the Soviet Union were to be "completely destroyed". Under Stalin the NKVD's Polish operation soon arrested some 144,000, of whom 111,000 were shot and surviving family members deported to Kazakhstan.[86] [87] [88]

According to historian Michael Ellman, "The 'national operations' of 1937–38, notably the 'Polish operation', may qualify as genocide as defined by the UN Convention, although there is as yet no legal ruling on the matter".[89] Karol Karski argues that the Soviet actions against Poles are genocide according to international law. He says that while the extermination was targeting other nationalities as well and according to the criteria other than ethnicity, but as long as Poles were singled out basing on their ethnicity, that makes the actions to be genocide.[90] The historian Terry Martin, refers to the "national operations", including the "Polish Operation", as ethnic cleansing and "ethnic terror". According to Martin, the singling out of diaspora nationalities for arrest and mass execution "verged on the genocidal".[91] Historian Timothy Snyder called the Polish Operation genocidal: "It is hard not to see the Soviet "Polish Operation" of 1937-38 as genocidal: Polish fathers were shot, Polish mothers sent to Kazakhstan, and Polish children left in orphanages where they would lose their Polish identity. As more than 100,000 innocent people were killed on the spurious grounds that theirs was a disloyal ethnicity, Stalin spoke of "Polish filth"."[92] Norman Naimark called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal"[93] but did not consider the entire Great Purge genocidal since it targeted political opponents as well.[93] Simon Sebag Montefiore presents a similar opinion.[94]

In practice abandoning its 'official socialist' ideology of the "fraternity of peoples", the Soviets in the Great Terror of 1937–1938 targeted "a national group as an enemy of the state." During their Polish operation against party enemies the NKVD hit "Soviet Poles and other Soviet citizens associated with Poland, Polish culture, or Roman Catholicism. The Polish ethnic character of the operation quickly prevailed in practice... ." Stalin was pleased at "cleaning out this Polish filth." Among the several different nationalities targeted in the Great Terror (e.g., Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Belarusians), "ethnic Poles suffered more than any other group."[95] In 1940 the Soviets also killed thousands of Polish POWs, among about 22,000 Polish citizens shot in the Katyn forest and other places.[96] [97]

Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachay, Kalmyks, Meskhetian Turks, and Volga Germans

See main article: Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, Deportation of the Karachays, Deportation of the Kalmyks, Deportation of the Balkars and Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks. The decree on the deportation of Volga Germans was published on 28 August 1941. Men aged 15–55 and later women between the ages of 16 and 45 were forced to work in the forests and mines of Siberia and Central Asia under conditions similar to those prevailing in the slave labor camps of the Gulag. The expulsion of the Germans from the Volga ended in September 1941. The number sent to Siberia and Kazakhstan totaled approximately 438,000. Together with 27,000 evicted in the same ethnic cleansing of the Stalingrad Oblast and 47,000 of the Saratov Oblast, the total number sent to forced internal exile was about 950,000, of which 30% died during deportation (285,000), and most never returned to the Volga Region.

On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechen people during Operation Lentil (23 February 1944), as an act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 IV Hague Convention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land and the CPPCG.[98]

The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire population of Checheno-Ingushetia was summoned to local party buildings where they were told they were to be deported as punishment for their alleged collaboration with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to Siberia.[99]

Deportations of Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians

The mass deportations of up to 17,500 Lithuanians, 17,000 Latvians and 6,000 Estonians carried out by Stalin's government marked the start of another genocide. Added to the killing of the Forest Brethren and the renewed Dekulakization which followed the Soviet reconquest of the Baltic states at the end of World War II, the total number of people who were deported to Siberia consisted of 118,559 Lithuanians, 52,541 Latvians, and 32,540 Estonians.[102] The high death rate of the deportees during their first few years in exile, caused by the failure of the Soviet authorities to provide them with suitable clothing and housing after they reached their destination, led some sources to label the affair an act of genocide. Based on the Martens Clause and the principles of the Nuremberg Charter, the European Court of Human Rights held that the March deportation constituted a crime against humanity.[103] [104] According to Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against humanity, rather than genocide.[105]

Lithuania began holding trials for genocide in 1997. Latvia and Estonia followed in 1998.[106] Latvia has since convicted four security officers and in 2003 it sentenced a former KGB agent to five years in prison. Estonia tried and convicted ten men and is investigating others. In Lithuania by 2004 23 cases were before the courts, but as of the end of the year none had been convicted.[107]

In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old), a former Soviet Communist Party official and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly after the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meri's frail health and then abandoned when he died.[108] A memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genocidal victims of Stalin and Hitler,[109] and the Museum of Genocide Victims in Lithuania, which opened on 14 October 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles the imprisonment and deportation of Lithuanians.[110]

Crimean Tatars

See main article: Deportation of the Crimean Tatars. The ethnic cleansing[111] [112] [113] and deportation of the Crimean Tatars from Crimea was ordered by Joseph Stalin as a form of collective punishment for alleged collaboration with the Nazi occupation regime in Taurida Subdistrict during 1942–1943. The state-organized removal is known as the Crimean Tatar; Crimean Turkish: Sürgünlik in Crimean Tatar. A total of more than 230,000 people were deported (the entire ethnic Crimean Tatar population), of which more than 100,000 were killed via starvation or disease.

Many activists, politicians, scholars and historians go even further and consider this deportation a crime of genocide. Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland". Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay and Pyotr Grigorenko both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."name="Snyder 2018"/>

On 12 December 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament issued a resolution recognizing this event as genocide and established 18 May as the "Day of Remembrance for the victims of the Crimean Tatar genocide."[114] The parliament of Latvia recognized the event as an act of genocide on 9 May 2019.[115] [116] The Parliament of Lithuania did the same on 6 June 2019.[117] Canadian Parliament passed a motion on 10 June 2019, recognizing the Crimean Tatar deportation of 1944 as a genocide perpetrated by Stalin, designating 18 May to be a day of remembrance.[118]

Transcarpathia

Genocide scholar Raz Segal considers the actions of the Kingdom of Hungary towards the inhabitants of Transcarpathia (including Rusyns and Jews) to constitute a genocide.[119]

Massacres of Albanians in Yugoslavia

See main article: Massacres of Albanians in World War I and Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo. The massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars were perpetrated on several occasions by the Serbian and Montenegrin armies and paramilitaries during the conflicts that occurred in the region between 1912 and 1913.[120] During the 1912–13 First Balkan War, Serbia and Montenegro committed a number of war crimes against the Albanian population after expelling Ottoman Empire forces from present-day Albania, Kosovo, and North Macedonia, which were reported by the European, American and Serbian opposition press.[121] Most of the crimes occurred between October 1912 and the summer of 1913. The goal of the forced expulsions and massacres was statistical manipulation before the London Ambassadors Conference to determine the new Balkan borders. 10% of the population of present-day Kosovo (estimated to be 500,000) were victimized,[122] with between 120,000[123] [124] and 270,000[125] Albanians being killed.

Japan

See main article: Japanese colonial empire, Kanto Massacre and Japanese war crimes.

Korea and Taiwan (Japanese era)

See main article: Musha Incident, Taiwan under Japanese rule and Korea under Japanese rule.

Nanjing Massacre

During the Nanjing Massacre which was committed during the early months of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese committed mass killings against the Chinese population of the city, during which up to 300,000 people were killed. Bradley Campbell described the Nanjing Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed en masse by the Japanese during the aftermath of the battle for the city, despite its successful and certain outcome.[126] However, Jean-Louis Margolin does not believe that the Nanjing atrocities should be considered a genocide because only prisoners of war were executed in a systematic manner and the targeting of civilians was sporadic and done without orders by individual actors.[127]

Southeast Asia

See main article: Pacific War, South-East Asian theatre of World War II and Japanese occupation of the Philippines. Various atrocities were also committed during the Japanese colonial era, one of them was the Manila massacre.[128]

Dominican Republic

In 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo ordered the execution of Haitians who were living in the Dominican Republic. The Parsley massacre, known as "El Corte" (the Cutting) in the Dominican Republic, lasted approximately five days. The name of the massacre comes from claims that soldiers used a Shibboleth to identify suspected Haitians, showing them parsley leaves and asking them to pronounce the name of the plant. Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to pronounce the Spanish word for parsley ("perejil") correctly, whereas native Haitian Creole speakers would struggle to pronounce the 'r' adequately. Those who mispronounced "perejil" were assumed to be Haitian and slaughtered. The massacre resulted in the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000 people.[129]

Republic of China and Tibet

In the 1930s, the Kuomintang's Republic of China government supported Muslim warlord Ma Bufang when he launched seven expeditions into Golog, causing the deaths of thousands of Tibetans.[130] Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that followed genocidal, while David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the number of times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack that made life impossible.[131] Ma was anti-communist and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northeast and eastern Qinghai and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples.[132] [133] Ma also patronized the Panchen Lama, who was exiled from Tibet by the Dalai Lama's government.

Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe

See main article: Nazism, Nazi Party, Nazi racial theories, Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany, The Holocaust, Romani Holocaust, Nazi eugenics, Aktion T4, Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II, Generalplan Ost, Hunger Plan, German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war, Religion in Nazi Germany, Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany and Consequences of Nazism.

The Holocaust

YearJews killed[134]
1933–1940under 100,000
19411,100,000
19422,700,000
1943500,000
1944600,000
1945100,000

See main article: The Holocaust. The Holocaust is widely recognized as a genocide. The term "genocide" appeared in the indictment of 24 German leaders. Count three of the indictment stated that all of the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide – namely, the extermination of racial and national groups...."[135]

The term "Holocaust" (derived from the Greek words Greek, Modern (1453-);: hólos, "whole" and Greek, Modern (1453-);: kaustós, "burnt") is often used to describe the killing of approximately six million European Jews, as part of a program of deliberate extermination which was planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers Party in Germany, which was led by Adolf Hitler. Many scholars do not include other groups in the definition of the Holocaust, because they choose to limit it to the genocide of the Jews.[136] [137]

The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers and murdered through over-work. When Nazi Germany conquered new territories in Eastern Europe, specialized units which were called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[138] Jews and Romani people were crammed into ghettos before they were crammed into box cars and transported to extermination camps by freight train where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."

Extermination CampEstimate of
number killed		Ref
Auschwitz-Birkenau1,000,000[139]
Treblinka870,000[140]
Belzec600,000[141]
Majdanek79,000–235,000[142] [143]
Chełmno320,000[144]
Sobibór250,000[145]
The following figures by Lucy Dawidowicz show the annihilation of the Jewish population of Europe by (pre-war) country:!Country!Estimated
Pre-War
Jewish
population!Estimated
killed!Percent
killed
Poland3,300,0003,000,00090
Baltic countries253,000228,00090
Germany and Austria240,000210,00087.5
Bohemia and Moravia90,00080,00089
Slovakia90,00075,00083
Greece70,00054,00077
Netherlands140,000105,00075
Hungary650,000450,00070
Byelorussian SSR375,000245,00065
Ukrainian SSR1,500,000900,00060
Belgium65,00040,00060
Yugoslavia43,00026,00060
Romania600,000300,00050
Norway2,17389041
France350,00090,00026
Bulgaria64,00014,00022
Italy40,0008,00020
Luxembourg5,0001,00020
Russian SFSR975,000107,00011
Denmark8,00052<1
Total8,861,8005,933,90067

This list gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 80–90% were estimated to have been Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half of the total number of Jews who were murdered in the entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland was murdered in these camps.

Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews who were murdered has been six million. The Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise figure for the number of murdered Jews,[146] but it has been able to find documentation of more than three million names of Jewish victims,[147] which it displays at its visitors center. The figure most commonly used is the six million attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official.[148]

There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million murdered in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were murdered.[149] The same proportion were murdered in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the majority of these fled to Czechoslovakia, France or the Netherlands, from where they were later deported and murdered.

In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia (whose territories were divided into the German-Italian Puppet state Independent State of Croatia run by the Ustaše and the German Occupied Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia governed by Milan Nedić's Government of National Salvation), over 70 percent were murdered. In The Independent State of Croatia, Ustaše and the German Army carried out extermination of Jews as well as Roma in Ustaše-run concentration camps like Jasenovac, while a considerable number of Jews were rounded up by the Ustaše and turned over to the Germans for extermination in Nazi Germany. In the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, the German Army carried out the extermination of Jews as well as Roma with support and assistance from Milan Nedić's regime and Dimitrije Ljotić's fascist organization Yugoslav National Movement (Zbor), who had joint control over the Banjica concentration camp with the German Army in Belgrade.[150] [151] 50 to 70 percent were murdered in Romania, Belgium and Hungary. It is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus and Ukraine, but these figures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Albania was the only country occupied by Germany that had a significantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in 1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored guests in the country.[152] Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member, had its own unique response to German policies regarding Jews; see Shanghai Ghetto.

In addition to those who died in extermination camps, another 800,000 to one million Jews were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate figure, since the Einsatzgruppen murders were frequently undocumented).[153] Many more died through execution or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland before they could be deported.

In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in Eastern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls which were published in the pioneering works by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilbert's estimation of two million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated figure of one million in the Extermination Camp data box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded in 1999:

Non-Jewish victims

VictimsKilledSource
Jews5.93 million[154]
Soviet POWs2–3 million
Ethnic Poles1.8–2 million[155] [156]
Serbs200,000—500,000
Disabled270,000[157]
Romani90,000–220,000[158]
Freemasons80,000–200,000[159] [160]
Homosexuals5,000–15,000[161]
Jehovah's
Witnesses		2,500–5,000[162]
Spanish Republicans7000[163]
Some scholars broaden the definition of the Holocaust by including other German killing policies which were carried out during the war, including the mistreatment of Soviet POWs, crimes against ethnic Poles, the mass murder of mentally and physically disabled Germans (which the Nazi authorities framed as "euthanasia"),[164] persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses, the genocide of Romani, and other crimes which the Nazis committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities. Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that the broadest definition, including Soviet deaths due to war-related famine and disease, would produce a death toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent) of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.[165] This was in contrast to the five to 11 million (1.4 percent to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in German-dominated Europe.[166] [167] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has the number of people murdered during the Holocaust era at 17 million.
Romani people

See main article: Romani Holocaust. The treatment of the Romani people was not consistent in the different areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some areas (e.g. Luxembourg and the Baltic countries), the Nazis murdered virtually the entire Romani population. In other areas (e.g. Denmark and Greece), there is no record of Romanis being subjected to mass murder.[168]

Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death toll was at least 130,000 out of the nearly one million Romani who resided in Nazi-controlled Europe. Michael Berenbaum writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000 and 220,000. A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated at least 220,000 and possibly closer to 500,000 victims, but this study explicitly excluded the Roma who were murdered in Romania and Yugoslavia (Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia) where the genocide of Romanies was intense.[158] [169] Martin Gilbert estimated a total of more than 220,000 deaths out of the 700,000 Romani who lived in Europe.[170] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 deaths, claiming that the Romani death toll proportionally equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.[171]

Slavic population of the Soviet Union

See main article: Eastern Front (World War II), Soviet Union in World War II, German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war, The Holocaust in Russia, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union and World War II casualties of the Soviet Union. The Nazi German government implemented Generalplan Ost which was part of its plan for the colonization of Central and Eastern Europe.[172] Implementation of the plan necessitated genocide[173] and ethnic cleansing which was to be undertaken on a vast scale in the territories which were occupied by Germany during World War II.[173] The plan entailed the enslavement, expulsion, and the partial extermination of most Slavic peoples in Europe, peoples whom the Nazis considered racially inferior and non-Aryan.[173] [174] The programme operational guidelines, which were prepared in the years 1939–1942, were based on the policy of German: [[Lebensraum]] which was designed by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi movement, as well as being a fulfillment of the German: [[Drang nach Osten]] (English: Drive towards the East) ideology of German expansion to the east. As such, it was intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.[173]

The civilian death toll in the regions which were occupied by Germany was estimated to be 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his figures, he used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when he referred to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied USSR which were caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major part of the huge toll. The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G. I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two figures is 3,267,613, which is close to estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions Nazi Germany implemented a policy of forced confiscation of food which resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of the population, 4.1 million persons.[175]

+ style="background:silver;" Soviet Civilian loses, Russian Academy of Science estimates
Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence7,420,379[176]
Deaths of forced laborers in Germany2,164,313
Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions4,100,000[177]
Total13,684,692
Poland

See main article: History of Poland (1939–1945), Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), Nazi war crimes in occupied Poland during World War II and The Holocaust in Poland. The German: [[Intelligenzaktion]] ("anti-intelligentsia action") was a highly secretive genocidal action of Nazi Germany against Polish elites (primarily intelligentsia; teachers, doctors, priests, community leaders etc.) in the early stages of World War II. It was conducted as part of an attempt to complete the Germanization of the western regions of occupied Poland before their planned annexation. The operation cost the lives of 100,000 Poles according to the Institute of National Remembrance.[178]

Adolf Hitler believed that the Polish elites might inspire the Poles to disobey their new German masters so he decreed that they had to be eliminated beforehand.[179] The aim was the elimination of Polish society's elite, which was very broadly defined as: Polish nobles, intelligentsia, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, military veterans, members of national organizations, priests, judges, political activists, and anyone who had attended secondary school.[180] It was continued by the German AB-Aktion operation in Poland in the spring and summer of 1940, which saw the massacre of Lwów professors and the execution of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest. Several thousand civilians were executed or imprisoned. The Einsatzgruppen were also responsible for the indiscriminate murder of Poles during the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union (which itself had invaded a sizeable portion of pre-WWII Polish territory, murdering dozens of thousands of imprisoned Poles in turn).[181]

Our strength is our quickness and our brutality.... I have given the order—and will have everyone shot who utters but one word of criticism—that the aim of this war does not consist in reaching certain geographical lines, but in the enemies' physical elimination. Thus, for the time being only in the east, I put ready my Death's Head units, with the order to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of the Polish race or language... Adolf Hitler, Obersalzberg Speech, given on 22 August 1939, a week before the invasion

Volhynia and Eastern Galicia

The massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were part of an ethnic cleansing operation carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created Distrikt Galizien in General Government), and UPA North in Volhynia (in Nazi created Reichskommissariat Ukraine), from March 1943 until the end of 1944. The peak took place in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander, Dmytro Klyachkivsky, ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of age.[182] [183] Despite this, most were women and children. The UPA murdered 40,000–60,000 Polish civilians in Volhynia,[184] from 25,000[185] to 30,000–40,000 in Eastern Galicia.[184] The murders were directly linked with the policies of the Bandera fraction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, whose goal, specified at the Second Conference of the OUN-B, was to remove non-Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.

The massacres are recognized in Poland as ethnic cleansing with "marks of genocide".[186] According to IPN prosecutor Piotr Zając, the crimes have a "character of genocide".[187]

On 22 July 2016, the Parliament of Poland passed a resolution declaring 11 July a National Day of Remembrance to honor the Polish victims murdered by Ukrainian nationalists, and formally calling the massacres a Genocide.[188]

Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

See main article: World War II in Yugoslavia, Ustaše, Independent State of Croatia, Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia and The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia. After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, Croatian Nazis and fascists who were known as the Ustaše established a clerical fascist regime which was known as the Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (Independent State of Croatia) or the NDH. Immediately afterwards, the Ustashe launched a genocidal campaign against Serbs, Jews and Romani people who lived inside the borders of the NDH. The Ustaše's view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory that the Serbs constituted an inferior race, was influenced by anti-Eastern Orthodox sentiment, anti-Serb sentiment and the works of Croatian nationalists and intellectuals which were written from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.[189] [190] The Ustaše enacted a policy which called for a solution to the "Serbian problem" in Croatia. The solution, as it was promulgated by Mile Budak, was to "kill one-third of the Serbs, expel one-third, and convert one-third (to Roman Catholicism)." Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazis' decision to murder all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941, specifically in late June, which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Final Solution.[191]

From 1941 to 1945, the Ustaše regime killed at least 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs,[192] [193] It is estimated that in the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp alone, which was notorious for its high mortality rate (higher than the mortality rate at Auschwitz) and the barbaric practices which occurred in it, approximately 100,000 people were murdered.[194] The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis installed puppet state which erected children's concentration camps. Serbs who lived in the NDH suffered one of the highest casualty rates in Europe during World War II, while the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes which existed during the 20th century.[195] [196] Historian Stanley G. Payne claimed that the direct and indirect executions which were carried out by the NDH regime were an "extraordinary mass crime", which in proportionate terms exceeded the crimes which were committed by any other European regime besides Hitler's Third Reich, while Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes which were committed against Serbs who lived in the NDH were the "earliest total genocide to be attempted during World War II."[197] Payne added that the crimes which were committed in the NDH were only proportionately surpassed by the crimes which were committed by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and the crimes which were committed by several of the extremely genocidal African regimes.[197]

Serbs in Montenegro

The Genocide in Piva and Velika[198] was the genocide of 522 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen, along with Croatian Ustaše and the SS Handschar Division on 7 June 1943 in the village of Doli Plivski, Montenegro, near the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina,[199] and the genocide of between 428 and 550 Serb civilians by the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen and 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg on 28 July 1944 in the settlement of Velika, in Plav, Montenegro during World War II.

Bosnian Muslims and Croats

See main article: Chetnik war crimes in World War II. The mass-killings which were committed against non-Serbs by members of the Chetniks, a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Sandžak constituted a genocide, according to some historians.[200] [201] This can be seen through the mass-killings of ethnic Croats and Muslims that conformed to the Moljević plan ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 'Instructions' which were issued by the Chetnik leader, Draža Mihailović, concerning the cleansing of non-Serbs on the basis of creating a post-war Greater Serbia. The number of victims by ethnicity includes between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and 29,000 to 33,000 Bosnian Muslims.[202]

Disabled and mentally ill

See main article: Nazi eugenics, Action T4, Action 14f13, Child euthanasia in Nazi Germany, Erbkrank, Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, Life unworthy of life, Hadamar Euthanasia Centre and Schloss Hartheim.

Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were murdered; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions. Outside the mental health institutions, the figures are estimated to number 20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the killing facilities known as "euthanasia" centers) or 400,000 (according to Franz Ziereis, the commandant of Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp). Another 300,000 were forcibly sterilized. Overall it has been estimated that over 270,000 individuals[157] with mental disorders of all kinds were murdered, although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Along with the physically disabled, people suffering from dwarfism were persecuted as well. Many were put on display in cages and experimented on by the Nazis.[203] Despite not being formally ordered to take part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and "constituted the connection" to the later annihilation of Jews and other "undesirables" in the Holocaust. After strong protests by the German Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941 Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.

The program was named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, the headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and Institutional Care, led by Philipp Bouhler, head of Hitler's private chancellery (German: Kanzlei des Führer der NSDAP) and Karl Brandt, Hitler's personal physician.

Brandt was tried in December 1946 at Nuremberg, along with 22 others, in a case known as United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al., also known as the Doctors' Trial. He was hanged at Landsberg Prison on 2 June 1948.

United States

The Osage Indian murders was a plot by William King Hale and others to kill full-blood Osage to gain the mineral rights for their reservation.[204] The events have been characterized as a genocide due to the intentions of its perpetrators to destroy the Osage nation.[205] [206] [207] While some label the murders themselves as an instance of genocide, others include the murders in a longer process of genocide against the Osage nation.[208] [209] Estimates vary widely as to the percentage of the Osage nation killed in the murders, with the lowest estimate being 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed.[210]

See also

See main article: Outline of genocide studies.

Sources

Further reading

See main article: Bibliography of genocide studies.

Notes and References

  1. 1915 declaration:
    • ;
    • ; : Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 – 7.
  2. Book: Midlarsky, Manus I . The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century . 342.
  3. A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS resolution is on p. 172)
  4. Web site: Resolution by the International Association of Genocide Scholars . IAGS . December 2007 . 15 February 2016.
  5. News: Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament – full text . Armenia NEWS.am . 15 March 2010 . 15 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240228191526/https://news.am/eng/news/16644.html . 28 February 2024.
  6. Book: Gaunt, David . Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I . Piscataway, NJ . . 2006 . 978-1-59333-301-0.
  7. 10.1080/14623520801950820 . Schaller . Dominik J. . Zimmerer . Jürgen . 2008 . Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction . . 10 . 1. 7–14 . 71515470.
  8. Book: Hans-Lukas . Kieser . Hans-Lukas Kieser . Dominik J. . Schaller . Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah . The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah . de . Chronos . 2002 . 978-3-0340-0561-6 . 114.
  9. Book: Aprim, Frederick A. . Assyrians: the continuous saga . January 2005 . F. A. Aprim . 40 . 978-1-4134-3857-4.
  10. Book: Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide . Bat Ye'or . Ye'or . Bat . Miriam . Kochan . David . Littman . 2002 . . 148–49 . 978-0-8386-3943-6 . 47054791.
  11. Book: Yacoub, Joseph . fr . La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938) . The Assyro-Chaldean question: the European Powers and the League of Nations, 1908–38 . thèse . Lyon . 1985 . 156., 4 vol.
  12. Book: Betts, Paul . Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination: Saul Friedlander and the Future of Holocaust Studies . 17 November 2012 . 17 August 2010 . Continuum . 978-1-4411-2987-1 . 214– . Already in the period 1912–14, the Young Turk leadership aimed to replace the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional.... The elimination of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek populations was an integral part of the Young Turk struggle for ....
  13. Book: Rummel, Rudolph . Death by Government . R. J. Rummel . 1994.

  14. 'By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region's ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and the Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia… The major populations of "Anatolian Greeks" include those along the Aegean coast and those in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus… A "Christian genocide" framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups that were targeted for genocide… of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor—Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians—approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 were exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.'

  15. 'An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous "population exchanges" that set the seal on a heavily "Turkified" state.'

  16. Book: Akçam, Taner . Taner Akçam . 21 August 2007 . A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility . Henry Holt and Company . 107 . 978-1-4668-3212-1.
  17. Book: Maisel, Sebastian . The Kurds: An Encyclopedia of Life, Culture, and Society . 30 June 2018 . . 978-1-4408-4257-3 . 266 . en.
  18. Book: Rezvani, Babak . Ethno-territorial conflict and coexistence in the caucasus, Central Asia and Fereydan: academisch proefschrift . 15 March 2014 . . 978-90-485-1928-6 . 145 . en.
  19. Üngör . U. . Uğur Ümit Üngör . 2009 . Young Turk social engineering: mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913-1950 . . en . 11245/1.319592 . 129130138.
  20. News: Paul Benjamin . Osterlund . Turkey's Alevis 'under the shadow of military tanks . . 1 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220820050732/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/5/1/turkeys-alevis-under-the-shadow-of-military-tanks . 20 August 2022.
  21. Book: McDowall, David . A Modern History of the Kurds . Third . 209 . 14 May 2004 . . 978-1-85043-416-0.
  22. News: Saymaz . Ismail . İsmail Saymaz . Turkish prosecutor refuses to hear Dersim 'genocide' claim . 24 November 2011 . . 14 March 2011 . https://archive.today/20130103102052/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=turkish-prosecutor-refuses-to-hear-dersim-8216genocide8217-claims-2011-03-15 . 3 January 2013.
  23. Web site: Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees in Iran . fidh.org . . January 2003 . 23 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240723061604/https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/iq350a.pdf . 23 July 2024.
  24. DeKelaita . Robert . The Origins and Developments of Assyrian Nationalism . MA . . Assyrian International News Agency . 22 November 2009 . 23 September 2011 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240718082743/http://www.aina.org/books/oadoan.pdf . 18 July 2024.
  25. Book: Donabed, Sargon . Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the 20th Century . 1 February 2015 . . 978-0-7486-8605-6 . 110–.
  26. Web site: Raphael Lemkin . https://web.archive.org/web/20100416164051/http://www.europaworld.org/issue40/raphaellemkin22601.htm . 16 April 2010 . EuropeWorld . 22 June 2001 . 23 September 2011.
  27. Book: Cardoza, Anthony L. . Benito Mussolini: the first fascist . Pearson Longman . 2006 . 109.
  28. Book: Mann, Michael . The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing . . 2006 . 978-0-521-53854-1 . 309 . Google Books.
  29. Book: Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif . Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance . Second . 23 March 2011 . . 978-1-4384-2893-2 . 146 . en . Google Books.
  30. Book: Dictionary of Genocide: A-L . Totten . Samuel . Bartrop . Paul Robert . Samuel Totten . Paul R. Bartrop . 2008 . . 978-0-313-34642-2 . 259.
  31. Book: Duggan, Christopher . The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 . New York . . 2007 . 497.
  32. Book: Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985 . Cooper . Tom . Grandolini . Albert . 19 January 2015 . Helion and Company . 978-1-910777-51-0 . 5 . Google Books.
  33. Book: Epton, Nina Consuelo . Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story . New York . Roy Publishers . 1953 . 126 . Nina Consuelo Epton.
  34. Book: Stewart, C. C. . http://www.shadowsgovernment.com/shadows-library/Unknown/The%20Cambridge%20History%20of%20Africa,%20Volume%20(1658)/The%20Cambridge%20History%20of%20Africa,%20Volume%20-%20Unknown.pdf . Islam . The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940 . Cambridge, United Kingdom . . 1986 . 196.
  35. Web site: La partecipazione della Milizia alla riconquista della Libia . The Militia's participation in the reconquest of Libya . Regioesercito . it . https://web.archive.org/web/20240511002853/http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/mvsn/mvsnlib23.htm . 11 May 2024.
  36. Book: Donald . Bloxham . Donald Bloxham . A. Dirk . Moses . A. Dirk Moses . The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies . Oxford, England . . 2010 . 358.
  37. Book: The Report: Libya 2008 . Oxford Business Group . 2008 . 17.
  38. Labanca . Nicola . 2004 . Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies . . 9 . 3 . 300–313 . 10.1080/1354571042000254737 . 144498755.
  39. News: Commission Calls 1916 Tsarist Mass Killings Of Kyrgyz Genocide Print Share . . https://web.archive.org/web/20230612173453/https://www.rferl.org/a/kyrgyzstan-1916-russia-mass-killings-genocide/27926414.html . 12 June 2023.
  40. Encyclopedia: Pushkareva . Irina . Shtyurmer, Boris Vladimirovich . ru:Штюрмер, Борис Владимирович . Stürmer, Boris Vladimirovich . ru . . 1984 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071111155448/http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/124/1012486/print.htm . 11 November 2007.
  41. Web site: UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» . . https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150627/http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/whitaker/section5.htm . 13 June 2019 . Prevent Genocide International.
  42. "History and Culture of Jews in Ukraine ("«Нариси з історії та культури євреїв України»)«Дух і літера» publ., Kyiv, 2008, с. 128 – 135
  43. Book: Vital, D. . Zionism: the crucial phase . . 1987 . 359.
  44. Book: Pipes, R. . A Concise History of the Russian Revolution . . 1996 . 262.
  45. Web site: Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed . https://web.archive.org/web/20091210025518/http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm . 10 December 2009 . University of York Communications Office . 21 January 2003.
  46. [Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev]
  47. [Robert Gellately]
  48. Holquist . Peter . A Russian Vendee: The Practice of Revolutionary Politics in the Don Countryside, 1917–1921 . Ph.D. . . 1994.
  49. Peter . Holquist . "Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919 . Cahiers du Monde Russe . 1997 . 38 . 127–162 . 10.3406/cmr.1997.2486 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190025/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/cmr_1252-6576_1997_num_38_1_2486 . 4 December 2009.
  50. Book: Polian, Pavel . Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR . . 978-963-9241-68-8 . 60 . Pavel Polian . Against Their Will (book) . January 2004.
  51. Book: Viola . Lynne . The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe:Comparison and Entanglements . 2014 . Central European University Press . 978-963-386-048-9 . Collectivization in the Soviet Union: Specificities and Modalities . 49–69.
  52. Irvin-Erickson . Douglas . Raphaël Lemkin, Genocide, Colonialism, Famine, and Ukraine . Empire, Colonialism, and Famine in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . 12 May 2021 . 8 . 193–215 . 10.21226/ewjus645 . 23 October 2023 . free.
  53. Hechter . Michael . Internal Colonialism, Alien Rule, and Famine in Ireland and Ukraine . Empire, Colonialism, and Famine in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . 12 May 2021 . 8 . 145–157 . 10.21226/ewjus642 . 23 October 2023 . free.
  54. Hrynevych . Liudmyla . Stalin's Faminogenic Policies in Ukraine: The Imperial Discourse . Empire, Colonialism, and Famine in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . 12 May 2021 . 8 . 99–143 . 10.21226/ewjus641 . 23 October 2023 . free.
  55. Klid . Bohdan . Empire-Building, Imperial Policies, and Famine in Occupied Territories and Colonies . Empire, Colonialism, and Famine in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . 12 May 2021 . 8 . 11–32 . 10.21226/ewjus634 . 23 October 2023 . free.
  56. Book: Sabol, Steven . Internal Colonization . The Touch of Civilization: Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization . . 2017 . 171–204 . j.ctt1mtz7g6.9 . 10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6.9 . 978-1-60732-549-9 . This work compares the process and practice of nineteenth-century American and Russian internal colonization—a form of contiguous, continental expansion, imperialism, and colonialism or imperialism that incorporated indigenous lands and peoples. Both the republican United States and tsarist Russia exercised internal colonization, yet they remain neglected in many studies devoted to nineteenth-century imperialism and colonialism..
  57. Book: From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule . 1083957407 . 320 . 978-0-19-093467-5 . Perovic . Jeronim . June 2018 . Oxford University Press.
  58. Book: Payaslian, Simon . Simon Payaslian . International Relations . 11 January 2021 . https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0105.xml . 20th Century Genocides . . 10.1093/OBO/9780199743292-0105 . 978-0-19-974329-2 . 26 November 2021. Oxford Bibliographies Online.
  59. News: Marples . David R. . 30 November 2005 . The great famine debate goes on... . Edmont Journal . . https://web.archive.org/web/20080615015541/http://www.expressnews.ualberta.ca/article.cfm?id=7176 . 15 June 2008 . 28 November 2021 . ExpressNews.
  60. News: Kulchytsky . Stanislav .

    uk:Кульчицький Станіслав Владиславович

    . 17 February 2007 . Holodomor 1932–1933 rr. yak henotsyd: prohalyny u dokazovii bazi . uk:Голодомор 1932 — 1933 рр. як геноцид: прогалини у доказовій базі . Holodomor 1932–1933 as genocide: gaps in the evidence . Den . uk . 19 January 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201101184321/https://day.kyiv.ua/uk/article/podrobici/golodomor-1932-1933-rr-yak-genocid-progalini-u-dokazoviy-bazi-1 . 1 November 2020.
  61. Getty . J. Arch . 1 March 2000 . The Future Did Not Work . . 2 March 2021 . Similarly, the overwhelming weight of opinion among scholars working in the new archives (including Courtois's co-editor Werth) is that the terrible famine of the 1930s was the result of Stalinist bungling and rigidity rather than some genocidal plan..
  62. Book: Davies . Robert W. . R. W. Davies . The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933 . Wheatcroft . Stephen . Stephen G. Wheatcroft . Palgrave Macmillan UK . 2009 . 978-0-230-27397-9 . xiv.
  63. Web site: Tauger . Mark . 1 July 2018 . Review of Anne Applebaum's 'Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine' . History News Network . . 22 October 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240628024405/https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/review-of-anne-applebaums-red-famine-stalins-war-o . 28 June 2024.
  64. Wheatcroft . Stephen G. . Stephen G. Wheatcroft . August 2020 . The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions . . 23 . 4 . 593–597 . 10.1080/14623528.2020.1807143 . 225333205 . We may well ask whether having revolutionarily high expectations is a crime? Of course it is, if it leads to an increase in the level of deaths, as a result of insufficient care being taken to safeguard the lives of those put at risk when the high ambitions failed to be fulfilled, and especially when it was followed by a cover-up. The same goes for not adjusting policy to unfolding evidence of crisis. But these are crimes of manslaughter and fraud rather than of murder. How heinous are they in comparison, say, with shooting over 600,000 citizens wrongly identified as enemies in 1937–8, or in shooting 25,000 Poles identified as a security risk in 1940, when there was no doubt as to the outcome of the orders? The conventional view is that manslaughter is less heinous than cold blooded murder..
  65. Book: Davies . Robert W. . Robert W. Davies . Wheatcroft . Stephen G. . Stephen G. Wheatcroft . 2009 . The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933 . . xv . 10.1057/9780230273979 . 978-0-230-23855-8.
  66. Web site: Osadchenko . E. V. . Rudneva . S. E. . ru:Голод на Kубани 1932-1933 Гг. . Hunger in Kuban 1932–1933 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231006083734/https://natural-sciences.ru/ru/article/view?id=29574 . 6 October 2023.
  67. Ellman . Michael . Stalin and the Soviet famine of 1932–33 Revisited . Europe-Asia Studies . June 2007 . 59 . 4 . 663–693 . 10.1080/09668130701291899 . 53655536 . 23 January 2021 . 14 October 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/.
  68. Naumenko . Natalya . March 2021 . The Political Economy of Famine: The Ukrainian Famine of 1933 . The Journal of Economic History . 81 . 1 . 156–197 . 10.1017/S0022050720000625 . 0022-0507 . free.
  69. Markevich . Andrei . Naumenko . Natalya . Qian . Nancy . 29 July 2021. The Political-Economic Causes of the Soviet Great Famine, 1932–33 . Centre for Economic Policy Research . 26 November 2021 . REPEC.
  70. Wolowyna . Oleh . October 2020 . A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union . . 23 . 4 . 501–526 . 10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741 . 226316468.
  71. News: Helen . Fawkes . Legacy of famine divides Ukraine . . 24 November 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231001230532/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6179818.stm . 1 October 2023.
  72. News: Sentence to Stalin, his comrades for organizing Holodomor takes effect in Ukraine . . 21 January 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110123071649/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/57679/ . 23 January 2011.
  73. News: Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against Ukrainians . https://web.archive.org/web/20101122202838/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/65137/ . 22 November 2010 . . 27 April 2010.
  74. News: Interfax-Ukraine . Our Ukraine Party: Yanukovych violated law on Holodomor of 1932–1933 . . 27 April 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100501041658/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/65188/ . 1 May 2010 . 10 August 2010.
  75. Book: Sabol, Steven . 'The Touch of Civilization': Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization . . 2017 . 978-1-60732-550-5 . 47.
  76. PIanciola, Niccolò, 2004, "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928-1934", Cahiers du monde russe, vol. 45, No. 1-2, pp. 137-192.
  77. Book: Pianciola, Niccolò . 2009 . Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905-1936) . it . Frontier Stalinism: Agricultural Colonization, Extermination of Nomads, and State-Building in Central Asia (1905-1936) . Rome . Viella.
  78. Book: Payne, Matthew J. . 2011 . Seeing like a soviet state: settlement of nomadic Kazakhs, 1928-1934 . Alexopoulos . Golgo . Hessler . Julie.
  79. Ellman . Michael . June 2007 . Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 . . 59 . 4 . 663–693 . 10.1080/09668130701291899 . 53655536 . 23 January 2021. 14 October 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/.
  80. Book: Kindler, Robert . 21 August 2018 . Stalin's Nomads: Power and Famine in Kazakhstan . . 11 . 978-0-8229-6543-5.
  81. The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan Sarah Cameron p. 99
  82. Book: Wheatcroft, Stephen G. . The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions . Stephen G. Wheatcroft.
  83. Book: Pianciola, Niccolò . Environment, Empire, and the Great Famine in Stalin's Kazakhstan .
  84. News: Kazakhstan Unveils Monument to Victims of Soviet-Era Famine . . 31 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240529031422/https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-unveils-monument-victims-soviet-era-famine/28520523.html . 29 May 2024.
  85. Web site: Message of the Turkic Council Secretary General on the occasion of the Remembrance Day of the Victims of Political Repressions and Starvation . 31 May 2021 . Turkic Council . https://web.archive.org/web/20221127092243/https://www.turkkon.org/en/haberler/message-of-the-turkic-council-secretary-general-on-the-occasion-of-the-remembrance-day-of-the-victims-of-political-repressions-and-starvation_2255 . 27 November 2022.
  86. Book: Naimark, Norman M. . Norman Naimark . Stalin's Genocides . . 2010 . 85–86 (arrested, shot), quote at 85.
  87. Book: Goldman, Wendy Z. . Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia . New York . . 2011 . 217.
  88. Book: Conquest, Robert . Robert Conquest . The Great Terror: A reassessment . The Great Terror . . 1990 . 405–407 . The Purge affected not only the Polish Party members but the Polish population as a whole. Between 1926 and 1939 Poles in the Soviet Union decreased by 168,000..
  89. Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932-33 Revisited PDF file
  90. The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study . Karol . Karski . Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law . 45 . 2013.
  91. Book: Lu, Suping . The 1937 – 1938 Nanjing Atrocities . 6 December 2019 . 33 . Springer . 978-981-13-9656-4.
  92. News: The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact . Snyder . Timothy . Timothy Snyder . 5 October 2010 . . en . 6 August 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180806210848/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/oct/05/holocaust-secondworldwar . 6 August 2018.
  93. https://books.google.com/books?id=IB-hDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Polish+operation%22 Genocide: A World History
  94. Book: Montefiore, Simon Sebag . Simon Sebag Montefiore . Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar . 3 June 2010 . Orion . 978-0-297-86385-4 . 229.
  95. Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler and Stalin (New York: Basic Books 2010), pp. 93 (quote: "fraternity"); 94 (quote: "Soviet Poles"); 96 (Stalin quote); 103–04 (quote: "ethnic Poles"). In the Polish operation Snyder lists 143,810 arrested, 111,091 executed, mostly Poles (p. 103). Other operations targeted Latvians, Estonians, Finns (p. 104), and "the Belarusian intelligentsia" (p. 98).
  96. Naimark, Stalin's Genocides (Princeton University Press 2010): Katyn killings, pp. 91–92.
  97. Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. The past in Poland's present (Oxford University Press 1984, 2001) pp. 58–59 (Katyn), p. 422 (Soviet President Gorbachev sent Polish President Jaruzelski documentary evidence re Katyn "proving that the mass murder of c.25,000 Polish officers had been perpetrated by the Soviet NKVD in 1940").
  98. Web site: Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944 . . 27 February 2004 . 13 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240706091848/https://www.unpo.org/article/438 . 6 July 2024.
  99. Book: Dunlop, John B. . Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict . 28 September 1998 . . 978-0-521-63184-6 . 65.
  100. Burds . Jeffrey . 2007 . The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942–4 . . 42 . 2 . 267–314 . 10.1177/0022009407075545 . 159523593.
  101. Book: Ediev, Dalkhat . ru:Демографические потери депортированных народов СССР . Demograficheskie poteri deportirovannykh narodov SSSR . ru . Demographic losses of the deported peoples of the USSR . Stavropol . 2003 . 302, Table 109.
  102. Book: Naimark, Norman M. . Norman Naimark . Stalin's Genocides . . 978-0-691-15238-7 . 89 . 5 December 2011.
  103. Web site: . 31 March 2009 . Martin Arpo: kommunismiaja kuritegude tee Euroopa Inimõiguste Kohtuni . et . Martin Arpo: the path of crimes of the communist era to the European Court of Human Rights . https://web.archive.org/web/20210412041751/https://arvamus.postimees.ee/100868/martin-arpo-kommunismiaja-kuritegude-tee-euroopa-inimoiguste-kohtuni . 12 April 2021.
  104. Web site: ECHR decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes against Humanity . derechos.org . . 17 January 2006 . 15 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20061005113613/http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/impu/kolk.html . 5 October 2006.
  105. Book: Oberlander, Erwin . Forgotten Pages in Baltic History: Diversity and Inclusion . Rodopi . 978-90-420-3315-3 . 253–254 . Martyn . Housden . David James . Smith . 2011.
  106. Book: Travis, Hannibal . Ethnonationalism, Genocide, and the United Nations . . 978-0-415-53125-2 . 82 . 2013.
  107. Book: Budryte, Dovile . Taming Nationalism? Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic States . . 978-0-7546-4281-7 . 182 . 2005.
  108. News: Estonian man on genocide charge . . 23 August 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231017164331/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6959632.stm . 17 October 2023.
  109. Web site: Genocide in Lithuania . people.cohums.ohio-state.edu . https://web.archive.org/web/20060911160640/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/odlin1/Graphics/lith/lithgen.htm . 11 September 2006.
  110. Web site: Eugenijus . Peikštenis . Lithuanian Museum of Genocide Victims . Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania . 26 November 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240413115825/http://www.genocid.lt/muziejus/en/695/c/ . 13 April 2024.
  111. Book: Levene . Mark . Mark Levene . Annihilation: Volume II: The European Rimlands 1939–1953 . 2013 . . 978-0-19-968304-8 . 333.
  112. Book: Naimark, Norman M. . Norman Naimark . 2002 . Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe . . 0-674-00994-0 . 104.
  113. Book: Kohl . Philip L. . Kozelsky . Mara . Ben-Yehuda . Nachman . Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts . 2008 . . 978-0-226-45064-3 . 92.
  114. [#Radio Free Europe|Radio Free Europe, 21 January 2016]
  115. Web site: Latvian Lawmakers Label 1944 Deportation Of Crimean Tatars As Act Of Genocide . 9 May 2019 . . 10 May 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240227034819/https://www.rferl.org/a/latvian-lawmakers-label-1944-deportation-of-crimean-tatars-as-act-of-genocide/29933467.html . 27 February 2024.
  116. Web site: Saeima pieņem paziņojumu par Krimas tatāru deportāciju 75.gadadienu, atzīstot notikušo par genocīdu . lv . The Saeima adopts a statement on the 75th anniversary of the deportation of the Crimean Tatars, recognizing what happened as genocide . 9 May 2019 . saeima.lv . 11 May 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240508182351/https://www.saeima.lv/lv/aktualitates/saeimas-zinas/27934-saeima-pienem-pazinojumu-par-krimas-tataru-deportaciju-75-gadadienu-atzistot-notikuso-par-genocidu . 8 May 2024.
  117. Web site: Lithuanian parliament recognizes Soviet crimes against Crimean Tatars as genocide . 6 September 2019 . The Baltic Times . 6 June 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240227034011/https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuanian_parliament_recognizes_soviet_crimes_against_crimean_tatars_as_genocide/ . 27 February 2024.
  118. Web site: Foreign Affairs Committee passes motion by Wrzesnewskyj on Crimean Tatar genocide . 21 June 2019 . 23 January 2021 . 19 April 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200419000357/http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/foreign-affairs-committee-passes-motion-by-wrzesnewskyj-on-crimean-tatar-genocide/.
  119. Book: Segal, Raz . Raz Segal . 2016 . Introduction . Genocide in the Carpathians: War, Social Breakdown, and Mass Violence, 1914–1945 . . Stanford, California . 978-0-8047-9897-6 . 1–18.
  120. Book: United States Department of State . Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States . 1943 . U.S. Government Printing Office . 115 . 2 January 2020 . en.
  121. Web site: Leo Freundlich: Albania's Golgotha . https://web.archive.org/web/20120531131757/http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1913_1.html . 31 May 2012.
  122. Book: Aggression Against Yugoslavia Correspondence . 2000 . . 978-86-80763-91-0 . 42 . 29 April 2020 . en.
  123. Book: Geshov . Ivan Evstratiev . La genèse de la guerre mondiale: la débâcle de l'alliance balkanique . The Genesis of World War: The Debacle of the Balkan Alliance . 1919 . P. Haupt . as for example that of the Serbian deputy Triša Kaclerovićh, who, in an article published in 1917 by the International Bulletin, affirms that in 1912-1913 120,000 Albanians were massacred by the Serbian army . 64 . fr . 9 August 2023.
  124. Rifati . Fitim . Kryengritjet shqiptare në Kosovë si alternativë çlirimi nga sundimi serbo-malazez (1913-1914) . sq . Albanian uprisings in Kosovo as an alternative to liberation from Serbian-Montenegro rule (1913-1914) . . 2021 . 1 . 84 . 10.51331/A004 . According to Serbian Social Democrat politician Kosta Novakovic, from October 1912 to the end of 1913, the Serbo-Montenegrin regime exterminated more than 120,000 Albanians of all ages, and forcibly expelled more than 50,000 Albanians to the Ottoman Empire and Albania..
  125. Ke . Jing . Change the Hostile Other into Ingroup Partner: On the Albanian-Serb Relations . Kosovo Public Policy Center . 83 . 120,000-270,000 Albanians were killed and approximately 250,000 Albanians were expelled between 1912 and 1914..
  126. Campbell . Bradley . Genocide as social control . . June 2009 . 27 . 2 . 154 . 40376129 . Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the Chinese city of Nanking was occupied by the Japanese in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city. . 10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x . 143902886.
  127. Jean-Louis . Margolin . Japanese Crimes in Nanjing, 1937-38: A Reappraisal . China Perspectives . 2006 . 2006 . 10.4000/chinaperspectives.571 . free.
  128. Web site: Remembering the Filipino comfort women . Cody . Cepeda . 8 December 2018 . INQUIRER.net . https://web.archive.org/web/20240708000520/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1061334/p2fb-remembering-the-filipino-comfort-women . 8 July 2024.
  129. Web site: Parsley Massacre: The Genocide That Still Haunts Haiti-Dominican Relations . Ibtimes.com . 15 October 2012 . 11 March 2014.
  130. Book: Bulag, Uradyn Erden . Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity . 2002 . . 54 . 978-0-7425-1144-6 . 28 June 2010.
  131. Book: Hui, Fu Li . China reconstructs . 10 . 1961 . China Welfare Institute . 16 . 28 June 2010.
  132. Book: Goodman, David S. G. . China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives . 2004 . . 72 . 978-0-521-61349-1 . 28 June 2010.
  133. Book: Mayaram, Shail . The other global city . 2009 . . US . 76–77 . 978-0-415-99194-0 . 30 July 2010.
  134. .
  135. Book: Monroe, Kristen R. . Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice . 2011 . . 978-0-691-15143-4 . 10–.
  136. Book: Weissman, Gary . Fantasies of Witnessing: Postwar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust . . 2004 . 978-0-8014-4253-7 . 94 . Kren illustrates his point with his reference to the Kommissararbefehl. 'Should the (strikingly unreported) systematic mass starvation of Soviet prisoners of war be included in the Holocaust?' he asks. Many scholars would answer no, maintaining that 'the Holocaust' should strictly refer to those events which involved the systematic killing of the Jews'. .
  137. Encyclopedia: Holocaust . Encarta . 1993 . https://www.webcitation.org/5kwpf3JYp?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559508/Holocaust.html . 31 October 2009 . Holocaust, the almost complete destruction of Jews in Europe by Germany and its collaborators during World War II (1939–1945). The leadership of Germany ordered the extermination of 5.6 million to 5.9 million Jews (see National Socialism). Jews often refer to the Holocaust as the Shoah (from the Hebrew word for "catastrophe" or "total destruction")..
  138. News: Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found . . 5 June 2007 . 15 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230527025555/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm . 27 May 2023.
  139. Web site: The Number of victims . Memorial and Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau . 18 April 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240427170744/https://www.auschwitz.org/en/history/the-number-of-victims/ . 27 April 2024.
  140. Web site: Treblinka . . https://web.archive.org/web/20240704073842/https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205886.pdf . 4 July 2024.
  141. Web site: Belzec . . https://web.archive.org/web/20240727071037/https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205981.pdf . 27 July 2024.
  142. Web site: Majdanek . The Holocaust Resource Center, Yad Vashem Holocaust Studies School . 5 February 2017 . 13 May 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190513131540/https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft.
  143. Web site: Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks?. 13 April 2010 . Reszka . Paweł . 23 December 2005 . . Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum . https://web.archive.org/web/20111106112513/http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44&Itemid=8 . 6 November 2011.
  144. Web site: Chelmno . . https://web.archive.org/web/20231022131313/https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%202494.pdf . 22 October 2023.
  145. Web site: Sobibor . . https://web.archive.org/web/20240608035953/https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206030.pdf . 8 June 2024.
  146. Web site: The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names . . 8 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240615142429/https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/names . 15 June 2024.
  147. Web site: The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members . . 8 November 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180411061558/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/tracing-family-members-lost-in-the-holocaust . 11 April 2018.
  148. [Wilhelm Höttl]
  149. Web site: Responses to common Holocaust-denial claims . https://web.archive.org/web/20130222013622/http://archive.adl.org/holocaust/response.asp . 22 February 2013 . . 8 November 2013.
  150. Book: Glenny, Misha . 2000 . The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804–1999 . New York . Viking . 502 . 978-0-670-85338-0 . The Nazis were assisted by several thousand ethnic Germans as well as by supporters of Dijmitrje Ljotic's Yugoslav fascist movement, Zbor, and General Milan Nedic's quisling administration. But the main Eengine of extermination was the regular army. The destruction of the Serbian Jews gives the lie to Wehrmacht claims that it took no part in the genocidal programmes of the Nazis. Indeed, General Bohme and his men in German-occupied Serbia planned and carried out the murder of over 20,000 Jews and Gypsies without any prompting from Berlin.
  151. Web site: The Suffering of the Roma in Serbia during the Holocaust . . Richelle Budd . Caplan . https://web.archive.org/web/20240521095648/https://www.yadvashem.org/education/educational-materials/books/suffering.html . 21 May 2024.
  152. Shoah Research Center;– Albania http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205725.pdf The Jews of Albania during the Zogist and Second World War Periods https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231247/http://www.heimat.de/home/illyria/i.php3?s=e&amp;p=2004_01_09_fisher_jews_in_albania and see also Norman H. Gershman's book Besa: Muslims Who Saved Jews in World War II – for reviews etc https://www.amazon.com/dp/0815609345 (all consulted 24 June 2010)
  153. Book: Rhodes, Richard . Masters of death: the SS-Einsatzgruppen and the invention of the Holocaust . . New York . 2002 . 978-0-375-40900-4 .
  154. Book: Dawidowicz, Lucy . Lucy Dawidowicz . The War Against the Jews . Bantam . 1986 . 403.
  155. Web site: Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era . . 2 March 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240727143702/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/2000926-Poles.pdf . 27 July 2024 . 1.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens are estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation and the war. Estimates are by the Polish scholar, Franciszek Piper, the chief historian at Auschwitz..
  156. Piotrowski, Tadeusz. "Project InPosterum: Poland WWII Casualties". Retrieved 15 March 2007; and Łuczak, Czesław. "Szanse i trudności bilansu demograficznego Polski w latach 1939–1945", Dzieje Najnowsze, issue 1994/2.
  157. Web site: Peter . Vogelsang . Brian B. M. . Larsen . Euthanasia – the 'mercy killing' of disabled people in Germany . The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies . 2002 . 13 February 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160303081500/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/baggrund/eutanasi.asp . 3 March 2016.
  158. Web site: Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies) . Holocaust Encyclopedia . . 27 September 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240717085935/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/genocide-of-european-roma-gypsies-1939-1945 . 17 July 2024. . The USHMM places the scholarly estimates at 220,000–500,000. According to, "serious scholars estimate that between 90,000 and 220,000 were killed under German rule."
  159. Web site: GrandLodgeScotland.com . https://web.archive.org/web/20110607190318/http://grandlodgescotland.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=91&Itemid=125 . 7 June 2011 . GrandLodgeScotland.com . 31 July 2010.
  160. Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. Hitler and the Nazis
  161. The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd., p. 108.
  162. Book: Shulman, William L. . A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939 . Bayside, New York . Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.
  163. Book: Pike, David Wingeate . Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube . Routledge, Chapman & Hall . 978-0-415-22780-3 . London . 2000.
  164. Book: Friedlander, Henry . The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution . 1997 . . 978-0-8078-4675-9 . xi.
  165. Book: Gilbert, Martin . Atlas of the holocaust . 1988 . . 978-0-08-036761-3 . 242–244.
  166. Book: Melvin . Small . Joel David . Singer . Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980 . 1982 . . 978-0-8039-1776-7.
  167. Book: Berenbaum, Michael . Michael Berebaum . A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis . 1990 . . 978-0-8147-1175-0.
  168. Book: History of the Holocaust: a Handbook and a Dictionary . Edelheit . Edelheit . Edelheit . 458 . Free Press . 1995.
  169. Web site: Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals . U.S. District Court – Eastern New York . 11 September 2000 . 29 January 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120516101356/http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf . 16 May 2012.
  170. Book: Gilbert, Martin . Martin Gilbert . The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust . . London & New York . 2002 . 978-0-415-28145-4. (ref Map 182 p. 141 with Romani deaths by country & Map 301 p. 232) Note: formerly The Dent Atlas of the Holocaust; 1982, 1993.
  171. Encyclopedia: Jewish Responses to the Porajmos (The Romani Holocaust) . Hancock . Ian . Is The Holocaust Unique? Perspectives On Comparative Genocide . 6 March 2019 . Rosenbaum . Alan S . . 978-0-429-71117-6.
  172. Web site: Der Generalplan Ost . de . https://web.archive.org/web/20210726053612/https://www.dfg.de/pub/generalplan/planung_1.html . 26 July 2021 . Eine Ausstellung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft . 2006.
  173. Dietrich . Eichholtz . "Generalplan Ost" zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker . "Generalplan Ost" on the enslavement of Eastern European peoples . de . UTOPIE Kreativ . September 2004 . 167 . 800–808 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080624220118/http://www.rosalux.de/cms/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/167eichholtz.pdf . 24 June 2008.
  174. Hitler's Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis Jill Stephenson page 113 " Other non-'Aryans' included Slavs, Blacks and Roma and Sinti (Romanies)"
  175. Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей -Human Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles. Saint-Petersburg, 1995. p. 126
  176. The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.
  177. The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.
  178. Book: Wardzyńska, Maria . 2009 . Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion . The year was 1939. Operation of German security police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion . . 978-83-7629-063-8 . PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB . 1/356 . pl . Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar. . It is estimated that Intelligenzaktion took the lives of 100,000 Poles [p. 8, or p. 10 in PDF]. . 23 January 2021 . 29 November 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035451/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf.
  179. Book: Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality . http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm . 1 . 1946 . U.S. Government Printing Office . Nuremberg . Chapter XIII. Germanization and Spoliation . 20 November 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120534/http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm . 15 April 2016.
  180. Book: Lukas, Richard C. . Richard C. Lukas . Forgotten Holocaust . 1997 . 8 . Hippocrene . 0-781-80528-7.
  181. Book: Headland, Ronald . Messages of Murder: A Study of the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941–1943 . 21 November 2016 . 1992 . . 978-0-8386-3418-9 . 94.
  182. [Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)|Tadeusz Piotrowski]
  183. Władysław Filar, Wydarzenia wołyńskie 1939–1944. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Toruń 2008
  184. Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447
  185. Timothy Snyder, Rekonstrukcja narodów. Polska, Ukraina, Litwa, Białoruś 1569–1999, Sejny 2009, p. 196
  186. Web site: Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach Wschodnich. Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu. 17 August 2011.
  187. Book: Zając, Piotr . http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf . ZBRODNIE PRZESZŁOŚCI Opracowania i materiały prokuratorów IPN . CRIMES OF THE PAST Studies and materials of the IPN prosecutors . pl . The Institute of National Remembrance . 2 . Persecution of Polish ethnics in the area of Volyn in 1939–1945 – criminal law assessment of events based on the findings of investigations OKŚZpNP in Lublin . Radosław . Ignatiew . Warsaw . 2008 . 34–49 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160306081758/http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf . 6 March 2016.
  188. Web site: Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre genocide . Radio Poland . 22 July 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240224145004/http://archiwum.thenews.pl/1/10/Artykul/263005 . 24 February 2024.
  189. Book: Bartulin, Nevenko . The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory . . 2013 . 978-90-04-26282-9 . 124.
  190. Book: Kenrick, Donald . The Final Chapter . 2006 . . 978-1-902806-49-5 . 92.
  191. Book: Phayer, Michael . Michael Phayer . . 2000 . Bloomington and Indianapolis . . 978-0-253-33725-2 . 31.
  192. ; ;
  193. PDF . de Diego García . Emilio . El drama yugoslavo: ¿Europa entre los siglos XIX y XXI? . The Yugoslav drama: Europe between the 19th and 21st centuries? . es . Cuadernos de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea . . 15 . 1993 . 0214-400X . 176 . 15 January 2017.
  194. Levy . Michele Frucht . "The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945 . . 37 . 6 . 807–837 . 2009 . 10.1080/00905990903239174 . 162231741.
  195. Dulić . Tomislav . 2006 . Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945: a case for comparative research . . 8 . 255–281 . 10.1111/nana.12433 . 242057219.
  196. Book: Charny, Israel . Israel Charny . Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H . 1999 . . 978-0-87436-928-1 . 18–23.
  197. Payne . Stanley G. . Stanley G. Payne . 2006 . The NDH State in Comparative Perspective . Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions . 7 . 4 . 409–415 . 10.1080/14690760600963198 . 144782263.
  198. Web site: Skupština usvojila Rezoluciju o genocidu u Pivi i Velici . sh . The Assembly adopted the Resolution on the genocide in Piva and Velica . https://web.archive.org/web/20240613203130/https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/politika/615485/skupstina-usvojila-rezoluciju-o-genocidu-u-pivi-i-velici . 13 June 2024.
  199. News: Kajosevic . Samir . 'Genocide' Controversy Erupts over WWII Massacres in Montenegro . Balkan Insight . 28 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230614183625/https://balkaninsight.com/2021/07/28/genocide-controversy-erupts-over-wwii-massacres-in-montenegro/ . 14 June 2023.
  200. Book: Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts . 978-0-203-89043-1 . 430 . Samuel . Totten . Samuel Totten . William S. . Parsons . 1997 . . 11 January 2011.
  201. Book: Redžić, Enver . Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War . 2005 . . New York . 978-0-7146-5625-0 . 84 .
  202. Croatian Institute of History . Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators . Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate . VIII . 1 . 85–88 . 2012 . Vladimir Geiger . Geiger . Vladimir.
  203. Web site: J. Tithonus . Pednaud . The Ovitz Family – Nazi Experiments . Thehumanmarvels.com . 2008 . 18 January 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130116033002/http://thehumanmarvels.com/894/the-ovitz-family-nazi-experiments/dwarfism . 16 January 2013.
  204. Book: Fixico, Donald L. . Donald Fixico . 2012 . The Invasion of Indian Country in the Twentieth Century: American Capitalism and Tribal Natural Resources . Second . . j.ctt46nvt7 . 978-1-4571-1166-2 . 41.
  205. Morska . Izabela . 8 December 2022 . Animality as an excuse for murder: David Grann and Killers of the Flower Moon . Beyond Philology . en . 19/4 . 97–127 . 10.26881/bp.2022.4.04 . 2451-1498 . free.
  206. Book: American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature . 2005 . . 978-0-85323-736-5 . DGO - Digital original . 10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1 . j.ctt5vjbd1 . "To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity.".
  207. Web site: Asenap . Jason . 6 November 2023 . Killers of the Flower Moon and who gets to tell an Osage story . 8 November 2023 . . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20240306213233/https://www.vox.com/2023/11/6/23945433/killers-flower-moon-osage-indigenous-scorsese-tell-story . March 6, 2024.
  208. Coyne . Delaney . 26 October 2023 . How the Osage Nation became Catholic: The hard truths in 'Killers of the Flower Moon' . 8 November 2023 . America Magazine . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20240310152909/https://www.americamagazine.org/arts-culture/2023/10/26/killers-flower-moon-osage-catholics-246377 . March 10, 2024.
  209. Bryant . Michael . 7 May 2020 . Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin . Genocide Studies and Prevention . 14 . 1 . 21–39 . 10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 . 1911-0359 . free.
  210. United States Census . 1930 . Indian Population of the United States . 1930 Federal Population Census . https://web.archive.org/web/20240305191547/https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1930/population-indians/1930sr-indians-ch02.pdf . 5 March 2024 . At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent..

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